Map of American Fortifications Around Boston Harbor, 1775

(Library of Congress)

Concord and Lexington

Considered the start of the war, these two "battles" were no more than small skirmishes between a ragged group of militia men and the British army. It began when the British learned of a large store of weapons in the town of Concord. They planned to capture these stores as well as capture John Hancock and Samuel Adams, who the knew to be staying there at the time. The Colonists knew that the British were planning to march on Concord but did not know whether it would be by land or by sea. Paul Revere rode through every town between Boston and Concord, waking the men of the militia, also known as minutemen.

On April 19, 1775, "the shot heard round the world" triggered a small skirmish at Lexington and although nobody knows who fired the first shot, 8 militia men were killed and 10 wounded. The British continued there march towards Concord and soon entered the town only to discover that Adams and Hancock had already fled and the stores had been hidden. Minutemen from all over Massachusetts entered the town unorganized, but formed a line on the North Bridge to prevent the British from completely overrunning the town. The colonists counterattacked and managed to drive the British all the way back to Boston.

Bunker Hill (US Army)

Bunker Hill

The Battle of Bunker Hill is a misnomer. Most of the fighting took place on Breed's Hill, next to Bunker Hill. In Charlestown, across the Charles River from Boston, Colonists fortified Breed's Hill in an attempt to trap the British in Boston. Lord General William Howe, commander of the British army in the Americas, ferried his troops across the river in an attempt to take the hill. He ordered three charges, and on the third was finally able to dislodge General Israel Putnam and the colonists. Howe failed to pursue the rebels after having suffered over 1000 casualties. This first pitched battle of the war affected Howe's strategy throughout the entire war making him more cautious and unwilling to overextend himself.

Olive Branch Petition

Even though the war had already started, Congress still had not declared America's independence from Great Britain. The Olive Branch Petition, they made one last attempt to find a peaceful end to the revolution before it had begun. The Olive Branch Petition outlined Congress' issues and asked the British government to respond. King George III of England refused to accept the petition. He believed the Americans to be in rebellion, and believed he could quickly end it with his military force.

Capture of Ticonderoga

Benedict Arnold and Ethan Allen, commander of the Green Mountain Boys of Vermont, captured Fort Ticonderoga at the bottom of Lake Champlain. This was the first colonial victory of the war. The fort also provided nearly 60 cannon for Henry Knox, artillery commander in the Continental army. The army was in need of all artillery that it could find without the ability to readily manufacture its own.

The Declaration of Independence

On July 4 of 1776 the Continental Congress signed the Declaration of Independence, declaring America separate from Great Britain. John Hancock was president of the congress while Thomas Jefferson wrote the declaration. America was now officially in rebellion.

Foreign Policy

Early in September of 1776, following the signing of the Declaration of Independence, General Lord Howe met with Benjamin Franklin, Edward Rutledge, and John Adams, delegates of the Continental Congress, on Long Island. They met to discuss terms in the hope that they could end the war peacefully, before it began. However, Howe was not given the authority to acknowledge the colonies as independent states, the prime objective of the delegates. While this was considered a waste of time by all of the delegates, it shows how Britain refused to acknowledge America's independence which it continued to do throughout the war.

The Battle for New York

It began with Howe's invasion of Manhattan Island. He crossed the East River with 4500 troops and landed at Kip's Bay. Using primarily Hessian Colonel Karl von Donop's green-coated jagers, an elite division know for its brutality, the British easily pushed the rebel lines back. Howe, afraid of another Breed's Hill, chose not to continue to pursue the rebels and cut off their retreat. Throughout the entire battle for New York, Howe wasted opportunity after opportunity.

After landing at Kip's Bay, the American army was divided in half. General Washington commanded the army north of Howe at the strong defenses of Harlem Heights while General Putnam commanded 4000 men at the southern tip of the Island. General Howe had the opportunity to completely separate the two armies, but instead allowed Putnam and his troops to reunite with Washington.

Washington and his army were forced to retreat from the safety of Harlem Heights when they were attacked by Howe. Washington retreated twenty miles north to the White Plains of New York, leaving the strongholds of Fort Washington and Fort Lee to hold the Hudson River against a British sea invasion. Unfortunately, Fort Washington was surrendered along with nearly 3000 Continental soldiers. When the British troops crossed the Hudson, north of Fort Lee, General Washington was once again forced to retreat. General Charles Cornwallis was heading a large force in pursuit of Washington with the hopes of crushing the rebellion once and for all when he received a note from Howe ordering him to secure the unmanned Fort Lee. This allowed Washington to escape across the Delaware River to the safety of Pennsylvania.

Victory at Trenton (US Army)

Victories in New Jersey

With the British army so close to the American capital of Philadelphia, Congress fled the city. With their homes newly threatened, more than 1200 men enlisted in the army for short six-week terms to defend their homes. This newly added strength, along with the facts that morale was low and many enlistments would soon be ending, getting rid of many of Washington's veterans, the General was looking for an opportunity to make a successful attack.

The opportunity presented itself when his spy informed him of the positions and numbers of the British troops. Colonel Johann Gottlieb Rall and Colonel von Donop, both Hessians, had forces of about 1200 men stationed at Trenton and Bordentown, respectively. Both were also planning large Christmas parties and the soldiers would probably be suffering from hangovers the following morning. It was an opportunity that Washington could not pass on.

Washington split his forces in two with General John Sullivan commanding one set of columns and General Nathanael Greene commanding the other set. They attacked Colonel Rall at Trenton, bombarding the town with Knox's artillery. It was a complete rout. Washington's army had only four casualties, none dead, while the Hessians lost over half of their troops. They fled to Bordentown and then later to Princeton. When Washington and Greene entered Rall's office, they found him dead in his chair and a note written in English on his desk informing him of the Colonial army north of Trenton. Colonel Rall was unable to read English and had delayed in asking for an interpreter because of his arrogance.

In lieu of these events, Cornwallis was unable to leave for England, as he had been promised by his superiors. He attempted to corner Washington at Trenton but decided to wait an extra day before attacking. This gave Washington and his men the time to sneak past the British regulars, often within only 100 yards of the Red Coats. The American army was then able to attack an unsuspecting Princeton and carry off much needed supplies.

Talks with Europe

The Continental Congress sent several representatives to France to try and form an alliance. The most important of these representatives was Benjamin Franklin. The majority of his dealings were with the Count Vergennes, Minister of Foreign Affairs to King Louis XVI. While Vergennes tried to form an alliance, there was a great deal of opposition in the French Court. The French refused to officially support the Americans by giving men and guns for fear of starting a war with England, but Ben Franklin was able make many friends in France who supplied the Colonies with countless necessities like food and clothing.

France almost joined the war in December of 1777. The only problem was Charles III, king of Spain. He was the nephew of Louis XVI and knew that if Spain joined France in a war, his uncle would reap the greater glory and the greater spoils of any victory. He was also afraid of losing control of his colonies in the Americas. Thus, Spain would not enter the war. If they had decided to at this time, France most likely also would have joined. France did not want to enter into a war with England having only the support of a small nation with no real chance of actually winning their war, according to King Louis XVI.

Perhaps Ben Franklin's most brilliant piece of negotiation came with the British representative Paul Wentworth. Mr. Wentworth had been in discussion with Silas Deane, another representative from the colonies. Franklin had refused to meet with him, believing that it was a risk to his relationship with Vergennes. He also did not believe that a meeting with Wentworth would accomplish anything. However, with alliance talks going nowhere between him and Vergennes, Franklin decided to meet with Wentworth, knowing that Vergennes considered the British representative to the chief British be spy in France.

Ben Franklin set up the meeting between the two statesmen in his home, ensuring that Vergennes would know of the encounter. Franklin was overly polite, constantly bombarding Wentworth with compliments and often insulting his own Congress. Mr. Wentworth took Franklin's bait and began to make a fool of himself. He began to put words in Franklin's mouth and to try and bribe Franklin and the other men from congress. Franklin decided that it was the and began to yell at Wentworth, thoroughly outraged. He yelled at him and tore his country's government to pieces. While he never knew if Vergenne's own spies had seen this meeting, soon after, King Louis XVI decided to make his own official alliance with the Americans, although he still refused to send troops to America, trying to avoid a war with Great Britain.

New England Campaign

The New England Campaign started when General John Burgoyne arrived in Canada. Lord George Germaine, the head of the British army in London ordered a two pronged attack with Burgoyne attacking from the north and Howe attacking from the south. If all went to plan, they would meet at Albany and separate New England from the rest of the colonies. Howe, however, did not want Burgoyne to have any glory. Howe decided he would first take Philadelphia and then meet Burgoyne in New York, but his offensive was slowed down by the American armies at Brandywine and Germantown.

Brandywine and Germantown

The British and American armies were at a standoff, facing each other with only the Brandywine creek separating them. Washington learned of a planned attack against his army and set up ambushes for the British at all of the fords of the Brandywine. Unfortunately, Tories aiding the British knew of a different ford and the British army was able to sneak past the American posts and surprise the main army. Washington was forced to retreat.

Several weeks later, Washington attacked the British headquarters at Germantown. Washington planned to use a pincer technique, splitting his army again into two forces and having them both close in on the British army at the same time, but due to fog, the two forces accidentally fired on each other. While these two defeats slowed down the momentum that had been gained at Trenton and Princeton, they prevented Lord Howe from having enough time to both take Philadelphia and join with Burgoyne's army. He chose to take Philadelphia.

Battle of Saratoga (US Army)

Saratoga

Burgoyne, using a three-pronged attack (British, Hessians, and Nathttp://www.army.mil/cmh-pg/art/P-P/RevWar/BHill-t.jpgive Americans), was able to easily take Fort Ticonderoga. General Benedict Arnold managed to neutralize the Native American forces at Oswego. Native American tribes were never again fully utilized throughout the war for some unknown reason. The Hessian forces were defeated when they were caught by surprise on a raiding mission, eliminating the second prong of Burgoyne's attack. General Henry Clinton, commanding a garrison in New York City, was unwilling to risk a defeat like that he had taken a part in at Bunker Hill and remained in the city.

Burgoyne was forced to try and smash through the rebel defenses. He attempted to outflank the Continental army but Arnold was able to hold. General Horatio Gates, commander of the northern army, called off Arnold's counter-attack that surely would have been a rout. In the final battle at Saratoga, Daniel Morgan's elite Virginia riflemen picked off Burgoyne's flanks. Arnold led his Connecticut soldiers in the center of the line. He forced Burgoyne's retreat through mud and rain, and Burgoyne surrendered on October 17. General Gates was considered the Hero of Saratoga, but in reality, was nowhere to be found throughout the battle and his general had to seek him out for orders to advance. After this victory, the French officially joined the war on the side of the colonies.

Valley Forge

The harsh winter spent at Valley Forge brought the men of the Continental army together. The Prussian Friedrich von Steuben, a new general to the army, trained the soldiers, forming them into an army that could actually fight with the British in a pitched battle, not just through surprise attacks.

Battle at Monmouth (US Army)

Monmouth Courthouse

The last battle of the northern campaigns, the battle of Monmouth Courthouse was a lost opportunity. Clinton, who was now the commander of the British army in the Americas, was retreating to the sea in order to receive safe passage to New York City. General Washington and his supporters, General Nathaniel Greene and the French General Lafayette wanted to attack the weak flank of the retreat. However, General Charles Lee, Washington's second in command, spoke out against the plan, saying that Clinton was expecting an attack and it would be an utter disaster. Washington still ordered the attack, placing Lafayette in charge. Lee later joined the march, assuming full command. When the battle commenced, Charles Lee ordered a retreat, even though the British were retreating and both General Charles Scott and General Anthony Wayne had opportunities to rout the British. When Washington arrived at the battle, he was outraged at Lee. He ordered Lafayette to attack and Cornwallis and his troops were defeated. It would have been a much larger victory, possibly ending the war, if it had not been for Charles Lee.

Battle at Charlestown (US Army)

Savannah and Charlestown

The following year, Generals Clinton and Cornwallis began a southern campaign with the hope that there were more loyalists that would take arms in the south against the colonists. Savannah was the first city to fall, with the British armada attacking from the river and infantry attacking from the rear. Soon, all of Georgia fell. Then the British attacked Charlestown, which was unable to put up as grand a defense as it had at the beginning of the war when Cornwallis and Clinton were soundly defeated. The defenses of Charlestown had been neglected and there were not enough guns. General Lincoln still withdrew his patriot soldiers into the city. Over 5000 soldiers were taken captive, as well as the largest southern port in the largest single colonial defeat of the war.

Camden

In lieu of the defeat at Charlestown, the command of the southern continental army was given to Horatio Gates, the hero of Saratoga, despite Washington's arguments that Nathaniel Greene should be put in charge. At Camden, Gates placed the untrained militia in the front and center of the line. When the British Legion, a cavalry unit let by Colonel Banstre Tarleton and known by their brutal tactics and green coats, charged the line, the militia retreated without even firing a shot. Soon, the entire patriot army was in retreat. Gates had boasted a numerical advantage but had ordered 400 troops to Thomas Sumter and he had sent Francis Marion (the Swamp Fox) on a pointless mission, weakening his defenses. Gates cowardly jumped on his horse and rode 60 miles in one night.

Change in Command

Congress finally decided to give General Greene a chance at command after Gates' disaster at Camden. Upon hearing this, Daniel Morgan of Virginia decided to rejoin the southern army with his famous Virginia sharpshooters. Morgan had left the army with his men, refusing to serve under Gates. The Virginian had fought at Saratoga and felt Gates wouldn't know a line of battle if it trampled under its boots. Morgan, Sumter, Marion, and Andrew Pickens defined the patriot war effort with their ragtag bands of men and their guerrilla warfare.

Cowpens

The battle of Cowpens is considered the best strategized battle of the war. Daniel Morgan had been given the light cavalry and, along with Andrew Pickens and his band of excelent riflemen, was traveling through South Carolina recruiting new men for the militia. Colonel Tarleton was chasing Morgan and his troops. Morgan set up his defense at Cowpens.

He placed Pickens' men in the front line with the militia just behind them. Both groups were ordered to fire two shots before falling back behind a hill. They were ordered to wait until the British were almost upon them before firing their second shots. Morgan ordered the South Carolinians to aim for officers, and if none were easily visible then to aim for the sergeants directly in front of them. The overconfident South Carolinians didn't disappoint. According to accounts from Daniel Morgan, not a single horse was hit so no shots were wasted. When the continentals and the militia retreated behind the hill, Tarleton ordered a charge. Unbeknownst to him, the cavalry was waiting. The cavalry charged and drove the British back around the hill, where the militia and Virginia Regiment were waiting after having run all the way around the hill. The British were soundly defeated.

Fighting at Guilford Courthouse (US Army)

Guilford Courthouse

After the battle at Camden, Cornwallis began to pursue Morgan. Even when Morgan rejoined with Greene, the patriots were still slightly outnumbered. Greene made his stand at Guilford Courthouse. His battle plan was very similar to that of Morgan's at Camden. This time, however, the militia did not fire a single shot. The cavalry had been separated from the army and was unable to come to the aid of the Continentals. The First Maryland Regiments fought valiantly and were almost able to save the battle, but were eventually pushed back and forced to retreat. Greene retreated into North Carolina to try and retake the southern colonies, while Cornwallis moved into Virginia.

Benedict Arnold's Betrayal

Though one of the best American Generals of the war and the real hero of Saratoga, Benedict Arnold had been slighted by Congress again and again. Despite General Washington's urging that Arnold be promoted, congress refused to promote Arnold, believing that too many men from Connecticut had already been made major generals. Even though he was eventually promoted to major general, he never forgave Congress and when he married, he gave his beautiful wife expensive gifts and had lavish parties. In need of money, when the British promised him a large sum for his help in planning an attack against the rebels he agreed, looking for an opportunity. The opportunity came when he was put in charge of the patriot fort of West Point. Major John André of Great Britain was caught carrying a note from Arnold to Clinton, ruining Arnold's plans. Arnold was never caught and tried for treason. It was later learned that his wife had known of the plans and had lied directly to General Washington when asked about her knowledge of the events that had taken place.

Virginia Campaign

The last campaign of the war began when Benedict Arnold, now a British General, began to ravage Virginia. Washington dispatched Lafayette to Virginia to help defend Washington's home state. Soon afterwards, Cornwallis moved into Virginia as well. Lafayette was able to deftly outmaneuver Cornwallis. Upset at his inability to force Lafayette into a forced battle, Cornwallis sent Tarleton on a mission to Charlottesville, Virginia's capital. Tarleton was able to capture several members of the state legislature. Thomas Jefferson, whose term as governor had ended just several days earlier, was fortunately not among the prisoners.

Prelude to Yorktown

Clinton, commanding a large force in New York City, ordered Cornwallis to set up a base on the Chesapeake Bay to allow easy access for ships. Cornwallis followed these orders and set up forts at Yorktown and Gloucestor on opposite sides of the York River. The key to these forts was reinforcement by the British Navy.

At this time in August of 1781, the Count de Rochambeau, the commander of the French troops, joined with Washington in New York and proposed to him a plan. The Count de Grasse, commander of the French Navy was only going to remain of the coast of America until mid-October. De Grasse was going to blockade the Chesapeake Bay, preventing a British escape by that route. Washington quickly agreed and set the wheels in motion for the battle.

It began with Washington feigning an attack against New York City by crossing the Hudson. Not even Washington;s own men knew what was happening. Clinton saw the Continental Army and believed that Washington was attacking New York. He pulled all of his troops into the city. It was not until Washington crossed the Delaware into Pennsylvania that his intentions became clear. By this time it was too late for Clinton to aid Cornwallis. The British Admiral Graves attacked the French Armada. While there was no decisive victor, Graves was forced to return to New York City with the British navy, allowing de Grasse to continue blockading the York River.

Yorktown (US Army)

Battle of Yorktown

The siege began when Washington and Rochambeau arrived. Cornwallis soon abandoned his outer lines to tighten his defenses and make an frontal assault on the British be unthinkable. This allowed Colonel Knox to move forward his cannons and bombard every inch of the inner defense. The Americans and the French formed a tight semicircle on the peninsula, trapping the British. The Allied forces had two bayonet charges against the fort led by Alexander Hamilton and the French Colonel Count Guillaume de Deux-Ponts. There was one last chance for Cornwallis and his troops to escape but a violent storm prevented their retreat across the York. The British attempted a counterattack but were repelled. They were forced to surrender on October 19, 1781.