There are three basic components
to Piaget's theory:
* Types of knowledge
(physical, logical-mathematical, and social-arbitrary)
* Stages of development
(sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, formal operational)
* Processes that enable
the transition from one stage to another
(assimilation, accommodation, and equilibration)
According to Piaget, teaching can
support these developmental processes by
* Providing support
for the "spontaneous research" of the child
* Using active methods
that require rediscovering or reconstructing "truths"
* Using collaborative,
as well as individual activities
* Devising situations
that present useful problems, and create disequilibrium in the child
The usual course of intellectual
development moves through the stages in order.
Stages are not age-dependent.
Assertions/implications for instruction:
"Any subject can be taught effectively
in some intellectually honest form to any child at any stage of development."
Subject matter must be made "ready" for the child.
The instructional challenge is to provide problems that both fit the manner of the child's thinking and tempt him/her into more powerful modes.
Modes of representation imply the
ideal sequence for instruction, but when
learners have well-developed symbolic
systems, it may not be necessary to go
through the entire sequence. Also,
the mode of instruction should match the
criteria that will be used for measuring
learning outcomes.
The spiral curriculum: presenting similar topics at every age, but consistent with the child's form of thought.
"Discovery learning" can serve a key role in facilitating the transition from one mode of thought to another.
Discovery = "all forms of obtaining
knowledge for oneself by the use of one's own mind." It is accomplished
by rearranging or transforming evidence to
create additional new insights.
The teacher's job is to guide the
discovery process. E.g., in teaching a
particular concept, the teacher
should present the set of instances that will
best help learners develop an appropriate
model of the concept. The teacher
should also model the inquiry process
Mental processes can be understood
only if we understand the tools and signs
that mediate them. In higher forms
of human behavior, the individual actively
modifies the stimulus situation
as a part of the process of responding to it.
No single principle (such as Piaget's equilibration) can account for development.
Appropriate methods for studying
intellectual development:
* emphasis on experimentation/observation
in natural, authentic settings
* cross-species comparisons
* sociohistorical factors
that mediate development
Social context is so important to Vygotsky that it is not simply one more variable to be accounted for; rather, social activity (i.e., the interaction between individual and context), not the individual him/herself, is the appropriate unit of analysis in psychology.
Development does not proceed toward socialization; development is the conversion of social relations into mental functions.
The zone of proximal development: the difference between problem-solving the child is capable of performing independently, and problem-solving he/she is capable of performing with guidance or collaboration; defines the area in which maturation/development is currently taking place and suggests target for instruction.
Implications for instruction
Instruction should lead (i.e., precede)
development. It should be targeted at the "leading" edge of the zone of
proximal development.
Instruction should provide learners with authentic situations in which they must resolve dilemmas.
In an instructional setting, social "partners" should be at different levels of development, and they should jointly construct the problem solution.
A contemporary application of Vygotsky's
theory is "reciprocal teaching",
used to improve students' ability
to learn from text. In this method, teacher
and students collaborate in learning
and practicing four key skills:
summarizing, questioning, clarifying,
and predicting. The teacher's role in
the process is reduced over time.
Implication of Vygotsky for assessment
of learning:
Individualized testing can
give only a partial picture of the child's capabilities (since it fails
to account for the ZPD).
Vygotskian Principles in the Classroom
* Learning and development
is a social and collaborative activity that cannot be "taught" to anyone.
It is up to the student to construct his or her own understanding in his
or her own mind. It is during this process that the teacher acts as a facilitator.
* The zone of proximal development can be used to design appropriate situations during which the student can be provided the appropriate support for optimal learning.
* When providing appropriate situations, one must take into consideration that learning should take place in meaningful contexts, preferably the context in which the knowledge is to be applied.
* Out of school experiences
should be related to school experiences. Pictures, news clips, and personal
stories incorporated into classroom activities provides the students with
a since of oneness between their community and learning.
Classroom Environment:
Rich with education and self-teaching
materials to be used by the children. They are not age specific and
they can be used in a variety of fashions. They are colorful, engaging
and should capture the childs focused attention.
Children have a wide range of choices and the goal is for them to develop their innate passion for learning. There are many tasks which can develop concentration and self discipline, allow children to progress at their own pace, allow kids to teach themselves and others. Grades, punishments and rewards are all not a part of the learning process. They learn social skills through peer teaching and all have responsibilities for keeping the environment orderly and clean. Another goal is to help them develop the kindness, courtesy and self-discipline that will help make them a full member of society.
Field trips and real world problem solving strategies would enable the child to see the connections between what they are “discovering” and how it is relevant.
Children learn through short, simple
and specific tasks to master concepts and skills.
Any child can learn but they learn
best when the TEACH THEMSELVES through learing games and activities.