CHAPTER 15HEALTH, STRESS AND COPING |
In the 1961 movie, "The Absent Minded
Professor," Fred MacMurray
portrays a stereotypical researcher
so engrossed in his work that he
scarcely attends to the details
of everyday life, stumbling around,
dressing badly, missing appointments,
and misplacing pens, notes, keys,
and so on. This sort of absent-mindedness
is similar to, but different
from, mindlessness. Rather than
simple forgetfulness, mindlessness is
acting without conscious deliberation,
blindly following routines, or
relying too rigidly on categories
and distinctions created in the past.
Harvard Professor Ellen Langer pioneered
the study of mindlessness and
its opposite, mindfulness, and recently
published a book on mindful
learning (8).
Two decades ago, Langer, then at
the City University of New York,
conducted a seminal study of mindlessness
with her colleagues Benzion
Chanowitz and Arthur Blank (1).
When someone would start to use a copy
machine, a researcher (incognito)
would ask, "May I use the copy
machine?" while a hidden confederate
noted the results. About 60 percent
of the time the copy machine user
granted the request. When the
researcher added a reason, such
as ". . . because I'm in a rush,"
permission went up to almost 95
percent. The request and explanation
seemed reasonable enough and were
no big surprise. Much more startling,
however, was the team's discovery
that an equally high percentage of
users allowed the interruption even
when the request was "May I use the
copy machine because I need to make
copies?" This, of course, is an
essentially meaningless reason;
why else would you use a copy machine?
Logically, the phrase should have
elicited no more cooperation than
giving no reason at all. But, suggested
the Langer team, mindlessness
was at work: It seems that the subject
would blindly comply as long as
there was a reason, regardless of
its meaning. More attention was given
to the structure of the request
than to its content, Langer said; to
prevent this kind of mindlessness,
one needs to be deliberately mindful
or more actively present and engaged
in thinking.
Ten years later, Langer expanded
her conception of mindfulness and its
potential importance to psychological
and physical health. In a 1989
study, she and her colleagues (2)
asked elderly patients to perform
"mindfulness tasks" with words in
related categories such as foods or
animals. In one such task, the seniors
tried to think of a word and then
another beginning with the last
letter of the first word. Langer's team
found that compared to controls,
the group that practiced "mindfulness"
exercises like these word games
enjoyed better health and greater
longevity. In another study, elderly
patients who put together jigsaw
puzzles themselves performed better
and reported that the task was
easier than those who received help
from the hospital staff (3). Langer
suggests that taking some control
over one's life and changing from
mindlessness to a more mindful,
mentally active mode improves the health
and cognitive function of the elderly.
In recent years, Langer has focused
on the power of mindfulness in
learning. Based on this research,
she strongly urges educators to avoid
rote memorization and to present
information from several points of view
so that it may be available later
for creative use. She gives two
examples--teaching the role of mathematics
in music and the role of
logic in writing--to show how students'
points of reference can be
expanded (4). She even tested the
effectiveness of this approach on
college students with a series of
experiments. She found that students
told, "This could be object X,"
were more likely to solve problems
concerning that object creatively
than were student told, "This is
object X."(5)
Beyond its importance for effective
teaching, Langer suggests that
mindful thinking helps reduce prejudice.
"Mindlessness," she writes, "is
passive information-processing in
which the individual rather
automatically relies on distinctions
previously drawn, instead of
engaging in active categorizing
and new distinction-making." In one
study of mindlessness, she showed
elementary school children slides of
people; half saw slides of able-bodied
people and the other half saw
slides of blind, deaf, or otherwise
disabled people (6). Some of the
child observers received "high mindfulness"
training; one group, for
example, was asked to think of four
reasons why the people in the slides
might be good at their profession
and four reasons why they might be bad
at it. The "low mindfulness" observers
had to produce just one positive
and one negative reason for the
work abilities of the people in the
slides. Follow-up tests showed that
the children in the "high
mindfulness" group were less likely
to avoid or discriminate
inappropriately against a handicapped
person than youngsters from the
"low mindfulness" group.
Clearly, Langer has found that mindlessness
can lead to thoughtless
action. Deliberate mindfulness,
on the other hand, can enrich us by
enhancing creativity, increasing
longevity, improving health, and
reducing prejudice.
Resources
1.Langer, E. J., Blank, A., &
Chanowitz, B. (1978). The mindlessness of ostensibly thoughtful
action: The role of placebic information in interpersonal interaction.
Journal
of Personality
and Social Psychology, 36, 635-642.
2.Alexander, C. N., Langer, E. J.,
Newman, R. I., Chandler, H. M., &Davies, J. L. (1989).
Transcendental
meditation, mindfulness, and longevity: An experimental study with the
elderly.
Journal
of Personality and Social Psychology, 57, 950-964.
3.Hilts, P. J. (1997, September
23). A scholar of the absent mind. TheNew York Times, p. B1,
B13.
4.Murray, B. (1997). Fluid, flexible
thinking boosts our learning ability. APA Monitor.
Reprint of an article that appeared in the August issue of the APA Monitor.
It discusses Ellen Langer's views of mindful thinking for improving teaching
and learning. (6 Jan. 1998)
5.Langer, E. J. & Piper, A.
I. (1987). The prevention of mindlessness.
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 53, 280-287.
6.Langer, E. J., Bashner, R. S.,
& Chanowitz, B. (1985).
Decreasing prejudice by increasing discrimination. Journal of Personality
and
Social Psychology, 49, 113-120.
7.Langer, E. J. (1989). Mindfulness.
Addison-Wesley Publishing. Reading,MA.
8.Langer, E. J. (1997). The Power
of Mindful Learning. Addison-Wesley Publishing. Reading, MA.
CHAPTER 15
HEALTH, STRESS AND COPING
ESSAY QUESTIONS.
Take notes on all three questions.
You will be paired with another student and select an option out of a hat..
You may bring notes to the test.
After completing the multiple choice section of the test, you will proceed
to your selected essay. It would be considered cheating
to write out a specific essay ahead of time and then merely paraphrase
your pre-planned essay during class.
Option one
Health : Many individuals
in todays society are confused by the continued
media presentation of health guidelines
and improvements that often seem to
be contradictory and which would
mean substantial change in their lifestyles
and behavior.
Prepare your best prescription for
maximizing ones health.
Include in your answer:
a. behavioral control
b. cognitive control c. medical intervention and
knowledge d. personality &
psychological characteristics
as you prepare your answer.
Relevant theories/theorists and experiments to
support your choices must be included.
Option two
Stress: Probably the best
help psychologists (experimental and clinicians)
can give us is not the antidote
once we have succumbed to poor choices but
the information/education and guidelines
to prevent stress, addictive
behaviors and related diseases from
beginning in the first place.
Describe the research of Hans
Selye,Richard Lazarus, Martin Seligman,
Holmes-Rahe, and Ray Novaco and
explain how you could incorporate their
findings into a prevention workshop
at work, in schools and in the home.
Option three
You are charged with the task of
determining the efficacy of the many coping
techniques discussed in the final
part of the chapter. You must use the
experimental research tool and try
to empirically support with data that a
specific coping device is better
than another coping device for the majority
of the representative sample you
will test.
The specific stressor is dealing
with the death of a loved one--child,
spouse or parent.
Make sure to include:
A. Purpose of Study
B. Hypothesis C. Sample D. Independent/Dependent
variables E. Procedure
F. Data Collection technique G. Method of
Analysis
H. Discussion of controls, possible confounds and ethical considerations
TEST CH 15
1. Many unhealthy
behaviors that may be part of our lifestyles are acquired and
maintained because they
a. are not subject
to the law of effect.
b. do not have immediately
negative consequences.
c. are perceived as
actually being healthy. d. are part of our
genetic endowments.
2.
Paffenbarger's research showed that on average, subjects who exercised
__________ lived about __________ than subjects who exercised __________.
a. rigorously; 3 years
longer; moderately b. only
slightly; 1 year longer; rigorously
c. moderately; two
years longer; only slightly
d. moderately; 4 years
longer; only slightly
3. People
who switch from smoking high-nicotine cigarettes to smoking low-nicotine
cigarettes
a. dramatically reduce
their chances of suffering from cancer and other smoking-related illnesses.
b. actually smoke
more cigarettes to compensate for the loss of nicotine.
c. report that they
enjoy the psychological benefits of smoking more now than when they were
smoking the high-nicotine cigarettes.
d. no longer enjoy
smoking as much as they did before they switched.
4.
Liam is taking Percodan to help relieve the pain he is experiencing from
the extraction of a wisdom tooth earlier in the day. The drug is effective
in reducing the pain, and Liam decides he will go out for the
evening with a few friends. Liam has several beers. Unknowingly,
Liam is running the risk of death due to
a. a heart attack.
b. failure of the circulatory system.
c. failure of the
respiratory system.
d. massive internal bleeding.
5.
Which of the following statements is FALSE?
a. AIDS may be transmitted through casual contact.
b. AIDS appeared suddenly and without warning.
c. Many people see themselves as being at risk for contracting AIDS.
d. Researchers do not yet understand AIDS well enough to develop a cure
for it.
6. Lyle
wants to buy a new CD system. Every week he cashes his paycheck and deposits
part of it into a coffee can at home. Sometimes, though, he is unable to
put anything away for the CD system because he spends the money on movies,pizza,
clothes, and other things that he likes but doesnt really need. In this
example, the long-term reward is
a. his paycheck.
b. the money he spends on movies, pizza, and other things.
c. the purchase of
the CD player.
d. all of the above
7. The
stage of the General Adaptation Syndrome in which the organism may experience
shock is called the __________ stage.
a. alarm
b. recovery c. resistance
d. exhaustion
8. An
example of a glucocorticoid is
a. cortisol. b. epinephrine.
c. norepinephrine.
d. reserpine.
9.
Hardiness seems to develop as a result of
a. parental warmth.
b. a stimulating home environment.
c. family support
in solving problems of moderate difficulty.
d. all of the above
10. The
reaction of the immune system that involves antibodies is called a(n)__________
reaction.
a. cell-mediated b. chemically mediated
c. immuno- d. lymphocyte
11.
Rhonda has a family history of cancer and recently discovered a lump in
her breast. What would be the best advice to give Rhonda?
a. think positively.
b. get medical treatment soon.
c. visualize the white blood cells killing the cancer cells.
d. ignore the lump and pretend it does not really exist.
12.
Amy visits the student mental health center to talk to a counselor about
her test anxiety. The counselor teaches Amy to relax various muscles
in her body when she begins to feel tense. The counselor has taught Amy
how to use __________ to cope with stress.
a. cognitive reappraisal
b. aerobic exercise c. progressive
relaxation
d. an emotion-focused coping strategy
13. Which
of the following countries has a relatively low rate of death due to breast
cancer (and a correlated low intake of fat)?
a. Mexico b. Norway
c. the United States
d. Denmark
14.
Cigarette smoking appears to be maintained, at least in part, by
a. positive reinforcement.
b. imitation.
c. both positive and negative reinforcement. d.
all of the above
15.
About __________ of all alcohol consumed in the U.S. is consumed by about__________
of all drinkers.
a. one-quarter; one-eighth
b. one-third; one-half
c. one-half; one-tenth
d. three-quarters; one-fourth
16. Which
of the following is a goal of STD prevention programs?
a. familiarize people
with safe sex practices
b. teach people
the connection between their behavior and getting an STD orAIDS
c. provide support
and encouragement for safe sex practices
d. all of the above
17. In
communities where Geller's seat belt program has been used and then discontinued,
rates of seat belt usage
a. stays about the same.
b. declines slowly back to rates prior to the implementation of the program.
c. declines rapidly back to rates prior to the implementation of the program.
d. declines, but not back to rates prior to the implementation of the program.
18. According
to the model of self-control described in the text, the best way to exert
self-control is to move the moment of decision to
a. a time before the
value of the small, short-term reward exceeds the value ofthe larger, long-term
reward.
b. a time after the
value of the small, short-term reward exceeds the value of the larger,
long-term reward.
c. a time after the
value of the small, short-term reward is equal to the value of the larger,
long-term reward.
d. a time before the
value of the larger, long-term reward exceeds the value of the small,
short-term reward.
19. About
two months ago, Ariel and Arlo's mobile home was destroyed by a fire.
About a week ago, both of them started getting sick: they both have colds,
feel run-down, and are complaining of stomach problems. Which stage of
the General Adaptation Syndrome are they experiencing?
a. alarm reaction
b. adaptation reaction
c. stage of resistance
d. stage of exhaustion
20. The
effect that certain stressors, such as those that cause anxiety and fear,
have on a person depends on his or her
a. behavioral responsiveness.
b. level of physical fitness.
c. perception and
emotional reactivity.
d. lifestyle and expectations for success.
21.Research
on personality variables and the risk of coronary heart disease have
determined that
a. health and life-style
variables cannot be separated from personality variables.
b. coronary
heart disease is too complex to be caused only by personality variables.
c. personality variables
do not affect the risk of coronary heart disease.
d. personality variables
are important, but the exact nature of the relationship is unclear.
22. The
immunoglobulin known as IgA is
a. found in lower than normal levels when a person is happy.
b. not directly involved in the operation of the human immune system.
c. present in the secretions of the mucous membranes.
d. all of the above
23. Mrs. Leyland
always gets extremely nervous when her 11-year-old son, Trent, is up to
bat.As soon as he steps into the batters box, she gets up and walks to
a place behind the stands where she cannot see him. This relaxes her a
bit; she returns to the stands when she thinks that her son has finished
batting. The coping style used by Mrs. Leyland is called ___________-focused
coping.
a. problem
b. emotion
c. solution
d. situation
24.
The stress management program that helps people develop coping skills that
help increase their resistance to the negative effects of stress
is called stress__________ training.
a. resistance
b. prevention
c. inoculation
d. education
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