CHAPTER6LEARNING |
|
CHAPTER6LEARNING |
|
7. Compare and
contrast Tolman s S->S view of learning with the S->R view.
Explain how Latent
learning supports S->S and is incompatible with S->R.
What is a cognitive
map ? What conclusions can one draw from the learning
curves on p. 242?
8. Define
abstract learning. How do the experiments of Wright et al show
abstract learning?
Describe the matching to sample and oddity
discriminations.
9. Give an example
of observational learning (Bandura) and contrast this type
of learning with instrumental
learning. Is the case made for media related
violence?
10. Describe
how parallel distributed processing is different from the
serial processing
view in artificial intelligence.
top
UNC
STIM -->UNC RESP/ NS + UCS-->UCR/ CS->CR
I. Chart the
classical conditioning paradigm:
1. Han moves
into a new apartment. Soon afterward, he is taking a shower
when he hears his
son flush thetoilet and the water suddenly becomes
extremely hot, causing
him to jump. After a few flushings duringhis showers,
Han notices a change
in his behavior: He jumps and experiences fear
whenever he hears
a toilet flushing.
2. Becca thought
her fish were boring. They became active when she fed
them; but the rest
of the time,all they did was hide behind rocks or sit at
the bottom of the
tank. So she decided that when she fed the fish, she would
tap on the cover of
the aquarium. After pairing the tapping with the feeding for
several weeks, Becci
found that when she tapped on the cover,
the fish swam to the
top of the aquarium and were very active.
3. Luis came
down with a stomach virus one day last month. For dinner
that night, he ate
lasagna.The next morning, he was extremely sick to his
stomach. He now starts
to feel sick to his stomach if he just smells lasagna.
4. A rabbit is
brought into a laboratory and it initially shows no reaction
when a loud tone is
sounded.Later, however, the tone is paired with a puff
of air in the animal's
eye. Every time the tone sounds,a puff of air occurs and
the animal blinks.
After many pairings, the rabbit blinks when the tone occurs
without the puff of
air.
5. You have had
several painful experiences with the dentist's drill. Now,
your stomach starts
to hurtwhen you are simply sitting in the lobby waiting
for your name to be
called.
6. Your boyfriend
(or girlfriend) used to wear a very unique cologne.
Even though you broke
up 6 monthsago, you still get a warm feeling on
the rare occasion
when you smell the cologne on a stranger.
1b. If classical conditioning:
US =
UR =
CS =
CR =
1c. If operant conditioning,
identify the process involved.
a. Punishment
b. Negative Reinforcement c. Omission d.
Positive Reinforcement
2a. A child watches
a videotape of his favorite movie while medicated
ear drops are administered
for a painful ear infection. Later, watching the
video alone can reduce
the pain.
a. Classical
Conditioning b. Operant
Condtioning c. Observational
Learning
Explain your choices:
2b. If classical conditioning:
US =
UR =
CS =
CR =
2c. If operant conditioning,
identify the process involved.
a. Punishment
b. Negative Reinforcement c. Omission d. Positive Reinforcement
3a. The first time
you try anchovies, you become violently ill. Now, the smell of any
fish is enough to
make you ill.
a. Classical
Conditioning b. Operant Condtioning
c. Observational Learning
Explain your choices:
3b. If classical conditioning:
US =
UR =
CS =
CR =
3c. If operant conditioning,
identify the process involved.
a. Punishment
b. Negative Reinforcement c. Omission d. Positive Reinforcement
4a. A baseball player
is in a slump. One day, he taps his bat on home plate
three times before
the next pitch. He hits the pitch for a home run. He does
the same thing during
his next turn at-bat and again gets a hit. Now, he taps
home plate three times
before every pitch.
a. Classical
Conditioning b. Operant Condtioning
c. Observational Learning
Explain your choices:
4b. If classical conditioning:
US =
UR =
CS =
CR =
4c. If operant conditioning,
identify the process involved.
a. Punishment
b. Negative Reinforcement c. Omission d. Positive Reinforcement
5a. Every time a mother
takes her son to the grocery store, the boy
begs his mother for
candy at thecheck-out line. If she says no, he whines
and cries. Sometimes
she gives in and buys him candy so that he will be quiet.
a. Classical
Conditioning b. Operant Condtioning
c. Observational Learning
Explain your choices:
5b. If classical conditioning:
US =
UR =
CS =
CR =
5c. If operant conditioning,
identify the process involved.
a. Punishment
b. Negative Reinforcement c. Omission d. Positive Reinforcement
6a. A young boy watches
Power Rangers alone in his room every
day after school.
During the show, he practices the karate kicks
and punches performed
by his favorite character, Billy the Blue Ranger.
a. Classical
Conditioning b. Operant Condtioning
c. Observational Learning
Explain your choices:
6b. If classical conditioning:
US =
UR =
CS =
CR =
6c. If operant conditioning,
identify the process involved.
a. Punishment
b. Negative Reinforcement c. Omission d. Positive
Reinforcement
7a. An asthmatic patient
receives medication for her condition when needed.
Later, on vacation,her
inhaler is almost empty. A devious friend fills the inhaler
with harmless saline
solution, and the asthmatic individuals still obtains relief
from the inhaler in
the absence of the medicine.
a. Classical
Conditioning b. Operant Condtioning
c. Observational Learning
Explain your choices:
7b.If classical conditioning:
US =
UR =
CS =
CR =
7c. If operant conditioning,
identify the process involved.
a. Punishment
b. Negative Reinforcement c. Omission d. Positive Reinforcement
8a. For two weeks,
a man has been working at a job where he
has to answer customer
complaints on the phone all day. Now, he
gets nervous and jumpy
when the phone rings, even at home.
a. Classical
Conditioning b. Operant Condtioning
c. Observational Learning
Explain your choices:
8b. If classical conditioning:
US =
UR =
CS =
CR =
8c. If operant conditioning,
identify the process involved.
a. Punishment
b. Negative Reinforcement c. Omission d. Positive Reinforcement
TOP
A.
Behavior Modification. Baseline due by Mon
Dec 10
Final Project due Fri, Dec 21
1) Select the behavior
to be modified (increased or decreased).
It is important to select something you really want to change, not
something you
“should” change.
2) Record baseline
behavior for a minimum of three days.
Keep a chart of how many times you “do” your behavior. Try not to
pick habits that are
unconscious: chewing on pens or your fingernails,
saying some phrase
(ugh, like, you know, whatever) or curse words unless you
have someone(s) else
as a monitor. 3x5 card w/daily tally marks transferred
to final typed sheet
is fine for this. Select something that is easy to
count in case you
forget.
3) After baseline,
write a very specific and reasonable goal for one weeks
monitoring.
Dieting or exercise is not specific. Not eating junk food
during break--defining
typical “junk food” is specific, but if everyday
during baseline you
ate 5 different snacks, zero would not be reasonable.
Running for 15 minutes
a day would be specific and reasonable; if you are not
a runner presently
though, a 7 mile run would be unreasonable even as a
weekly goal.
4) Select appropriate
positive reinforcers: one for daily reaching of goal
and one for the week
that is something more tangible. Rewarding yourself w/a
bowl of ice cream
if you are cutting down on junk food might be a tad
inappropriate as would
a dinner out. Money is usually good, free time to do
as you want is probably
not appropriate during this frantic holiday season,
but perhaps watching
a tv program might be????? for every 90 mins of
homework?
5) Record the level
of behavior daily for at least 1 week and record of
rewards.
Reading your psychology
homework daily rather than the night before the next
test might be a good
project--very specific, easy to monitor, and rewards
might be daily quiz
grades of 100%. Making an A on next weeks test on the
chapter would also
be a nice reward!!
B. Reinforcement
Experiment Group Data due by 4pm Friday Dec 7
1 page data analysis due Tuesday Dec 11
You may work in a group
of five for this assignment. Together you should
collect a minimum
of 30 people--two each for three different conditions.
Tell your subjects that you would like them to list 20 names.
For ten subjects,
record only the names given, no reinforcement. (Control Group)
For ten subjects,
reinforce female names. (Experimental Group 1)
For ten subjects,
reinforce male names. (Experimental Group 2)
Reinforcement should
be subtle--shaking of head approvingly, smiling widely,
saying yes, good or
even uh-huh. Make sure you give no reinforcement for the
non-desired response.
Ask your subjects in a quiet place--your home is ok, but at someone’s
locker they are likely
to just name subjects wandering by. Also ask them to
go slowly so that
you can record the names but actually so you have a chance
to give the reinforcement.
Add your collected
data on the front blackboard chart no later than Thurs Nov
30th. Although
you probably will find little success in your individual work
with six people, the
combined total might well be significant!
Your written report
will include: the six lists on 20 names, your individual totals,
the final group totals,
and a conclusion of whether or not the experimental groups
were affected by the
reinforcement or not.
TOP
B. F. Skinner
Indiana University
First published in
Journal of Experimental Psychology, 38, 168-172.
To say that a reinforcement
is contingent upon a response may mean nothing
more than that it
follows the response. It mayfollow because of some mechanical
connection or because
of the mediation ofanother organism; but conditioning
takes place presumably
because of the temporal relation only, expressed in terms
of the order and proximity
of response andreinforcement. Whenever we present
a state of affairs
which is known to be reinforcing at a given drive, we must suppose
that conditioning
takes place, even though we have paid no attention to the behavior
of the organism in
making thepresentation. A simple experiment demonstrates this
to be the case.
A pigeon is brought
to a stable state of hunger by reducing it to 75 percent of its
weight when well fed.
It is put into anexperimental cage for a few minutes each day.
A food hopper attached
to thecage may be swung into place so that thepigeon can
eat from it. A solenoid
and a timing relay hold the hopper in place for five sec. at each
reinforcement.
If a clock is now arranged
to present the food hopper at regular intervals
with no reference
whatsoever to the bird'sbehavior, operant conditioning
usually takes place.
In six out of eight cases the resulting responses were
so clearlydefined
that two observers could agree perfectly in counting instances.
One bird was conditioned
to turncounter-clockwise about the cage, making two
or three turns between
reinforcements. Another repeatedly thrust its head into
one of the upper corners
of the cage. A third developed a 'tossing' response,
as if placing its
head beneath an invisible bar and lifting it repeatedly. Two
birds developed a
pendulum motion of the head and body, in which the head
wasextended forward
and swung from right to left with a sharp movement
followedby a somewhat
slower return. The bodygenerally followed the
movement and a few
steps might be taken when it was extensive. Another
bird was conditioned
tomake incomplete pecking or brushing movements
directed toward but
not touching the floor. None of these responsesappeared
in any noticeable
strength during adaptation to the cage or until the food
hopper was periodically
presented. Inthe remaining two cases, conditioned
responses were not
clearly marked.
The conditioning process
is usually obvious. The bird happens to be executing
some response as the
hopper appears; as aresult it tends to repeat this
response. If the interval
before the next presentation is not so great that
extinction takes place,
asecond 'contingency' is probable. This strengthens
the response still
further and subsequent reinforcement becomes moreprobable.
It is true that some
responses go unreinforced and [p. 169] some reinforcements
appear when the response
hasnot just been made, but the net result is the
development of a considerable
state of strength.
With the exception
of the counter-clockwise turn, each response was almost
always repeated in
the same part of the cage,and it generally involved an
orientation toward
some feature of the cage. The effect of the reinforcement
was to condition the
bird to respond to some aspect of the environment rather
than merely to execute
a series of movements. All responsescame to be repeated
rapidly between reinforcements
-- typically five or six times in 15 sec.
The effect appears
to depend upon the rate of reinforcement. In general, we
should expect that
the shorter the interveninginterval, the speedier and more
marked the conditioning.
One reason is that the pigeon's behavior becomes
more diverseas time
passes after reinforcement. A hundred photographs,
each taken two sec.
after withdrawal of the hopper, wouldshow fairly uniform
behavior. The bird
would be in the same part of the cage, near the hopper,
and probably orientedtoward
the wall where the hopper has disappeared
or turning to one
side or the other. A hundred photographs taken after10 sec.,
on the other hand,
would find the bird in various parts of the cage
responding to many
different aspects of the environment. The sooner a
second reinforcement
appears, therefore, the more likely it is that the second
reinforcedresponse
will be similar to the first, and also that they will both have
one of a few standard
forms. In the limiting case of avery brief interval the
behavior to be expected
would be holding the head toward the opening
through which the
magazine has disappeared.
Another reason for
the greater effectiveness of short intervals is that the
longer the interval,
the greater the number of Intervening responses emitted
without reinforcement.
The resulting extinctioncancels the effect of an
occasional reinforcement.
According to this interpretation
the effective interval will depend upon the
rate of conditioning
and the rate of extinction,and will therefore vary with
the drive and also
presumably between species.Fifteen sec. is a very effective
interval at thedrive
level indicated above. One min. is much less so. When a
response has once
been set up, however, the interval can be lengthened.
In one case it was
extended to two min., and a high rate of responding was
maintained with no
sign ofweakening. In another case, many hours of
responding were observed
with an interval of one min. between reinforcements.
In the latter case,
the response showed a noticeable drift in topography.
It began as a sharp
movement of the head from themiddle position to the left.
This movement became
more energetic, and eventually the whole body of the
bird turned in thesame
direction, and a step or two would be taken. After many
hours, the stepping
response became the predominant feature. The bird made
a well defined hopping
step from the right to the left foot, meanwhile turning its
head and body to the
left as before.
When the stepping response
became strong, it was possible to obtain a
mechanical record
by putting the bird on a largetambour directly connected
with a small tambour
which made a delicate electric contact each time [p. 170]
stepping took place.
By watching the bird and listening to the sound of the
recorder it was
possible to confirm the fact that a fairly authentic record
was being made. It
was possible for the bird to hear the recorder at each
step, but this was,
of course, inno way correlated with feeding. The record
obtained when the
magazine was presented once every min. resembles in
every respect the
characteristic curve for the pigeon under periodic
reinforcement of a
standard selected response. A well marked temporal
discrimination develops.
The bird does not respond immediately after eating,
but when 10 or 15
or even 20 sec. have elapsed it begins to respond rapidly
and continues until
the reinforcement is received.
Fig. 1. 'Reconditioning'
of a superstitious response after extinction. The
response of hopping
from right to left had been thoroughly extinguished
just before the record
was taken. The arrows indicate the automatic
presentation of food
at one-min. intervals without reference to the pigeon's
behavior.
In this case it was
possible to record the 'extinction' of the response when
the clock was turned
off and the magazine was no longer presented at any
time. The bird continued
to respond with its characteristic side to side hop.
More than l0,000 responses
were recorded before 'extinction' had reached
the point at which
few if any responses were made during a 10 or15 min
interval. When the
clock was again started, the periodic presentation of
the magazine (still
without any connection whatsoever with the bird's behavior)
brought out a typical
curve for reconditioning after periodic reinforcement,
shown in
Fig. 1. The record
had been essentially horizontal for 20 min. prior to the
beginning of this
curve. The first reinforcementhad some slight effect and
the second a greater
effect. There is a smooth positive acceleration in rate
as the bird returns
to the rate of responding which prevailed when it was
reinforced every min.
When the response was
again extinguished and the periodic presentation
of food then resumed,
a different response was picked up. This consisted
of a progressive walking
response in which the bird moved about the cage.
[p. 171] The response
of hopping from side to side never reappeared and
could not, of
course, be obtained deliberately without making the reinforcement
contingent upon the
behavior.
The experiment might
be said to demonstrate a sort of superstition. The bird
behaves as if there
were a causal relationbetween its behavior and the
presentation of food,
although such a relationis lacking. There are many
analogies in human
behavior. Rituals for changing one's luck at cards are
good examples. A few
accidental connections between a ritual and favorable
consequences suffice
to set up and maintain the behavior in spite of many
unreinforced instances.
The bowlerwho has released a ball down the alley
but continues to behave
as if he were controlling it by twisting and turning
his arm and shoulder
is another case in point. These behaviors have, of course,
no real effect upon
one's luck or upon a ball half way down an alley, just as in
the present case the
food would appear as often if the pigeon did nothing -- or,
more strictly speaking,
did something else.
It is perhaps not quite
correct to say that conditioned behavior has been
set up without
any previously determined contingency whatsoever. We have
appealed to a uniform
sequence of responses in the behavior of the pigeon to
obtain an over-all
net contingency. When we arrange a clock to present food
every 15 sec., we
are in effect basing our reinforcement upon a limited set of
responses which frequently
occur 15 sec. after reinforcement. When a response
has been strengthened
(and this may result from one reinforcement), the
setting of the clock
implies an even more restricted contingency. Something
of the same sort is
true of the bowler. It is not quite correct to say that there is
no connection between
his twisting and turning and the course taken by the ball
at the far end of
the alley. The connection was established before the ball left
the bowler's hand,
but since both the path of the ball and the behavior of the
bowler are determined,
some relation survives. The subsequent behavior of
the bowler may have
no effect upon the ball, but the behavior of the ball has
an effect upon the
bowler. The contingency, though not perfect, is enough
to maintain the behavior
in strength. The particular form of the behavior
adopted by the
bowler is due to induction from responses in which there
is actual contact
with the ball. It is clearly a movementappropriate to changing
the ball's direction.
But this does not invalidate the comparison, since we are
not concerned with
what response is selected but with why it persists in strength.
In rituals for changing
luck the inductive strengthening of a particular form
of behavior is generally
absent. Thebehavior of the pigeon in this experiment
is of the latter sort,
as the variety of responses obtained from different pigeons
indicates. Whether
there is any unconditioned [p. 172] behavior in the pigeon
appropriate to a given
effect upon the environment is under investigation.
The results throws
some light on incidental behavior observed in experiments
in which a discriminative
stimulus is frequently presented. Such a stimulus has
reinforcing value
and can set up superstitious behavior. A pigeon will often
develop some response
such as turning, twisting, pecking near the locus
of the discriminative
stimulus, flapping its wings, etc. In much of the work to
date in this field
the interval between presentations of the discriminative
stimulus has been
one min. and many of these superstitious responses
are short-lived.
Their appearance as the result of accidental correlations
with the presentation
of the stimulus is unmistakable.
(Manuscript received June 5, 1947)
TOP
Plaques and tangles build up in certain structures of
the brains of Alzheimer patients.
Interestingly, people with autism have pathologies in
some of the same structures:
fewer cells in the cerebellum and increased cell density
in the hippocampus, among
other abnormalities. Joseph Steinmetz, professor of psychology
at Indiana University
Bloomington, is studying the effect of these brain abnormalities
on simple learning tasks.
Steinmetz devised an experiment to see whether people
with autism acquired classically
conditioned eye-blink responses differently from control
subjects. Eye-blink conditioning
is a well-established experimental model--first used,
incidentally, by former IU professor
Isidore Gormezano in the early 1960s--whereby subjects
hear a tone and then receive
a puff of air in an eye. After a while, they begin blinking
when the tone sounds, without
any intervening air puff. (The Russian physiologist Ivan
Pavlov introduced the world to
classical conditioning almost a century ago when he showed
that dogs could be trained
to salivate at the flashing of a light before food was
placed in their mouths.)
Steinmetz found some significant differences between people
with autism and control
subjects. People with autism actually acquired the conditioned
response faster than
control subjects, but they mistimed their blinks. "They
blink too early," he explained.
"It's not a very adaptive response because the learned
eye blink occurs before the air
puff is delivered."
This experiment on people with autism was Steinmetz's
first use of human subjects
after more than a decade of basic research on animals.
"My major interest when I
entered graduate school," he says, "was tounderstand
how the brain was involved
in learning and memory. I discovered that at the level
of the kinds of questions I wanted
to ask--which included where in the brain were learning
and memory occurring and
exactly what cellular processes were going on--human
subjects weren't appropriate."
So Steinmetz studied the brains of rats and rabbits, pinpointing
the crucial role of
the cerebellum and hippocampus in conditioned responses
and the effects of certain
pathologies on those responses. "Then you actually can
use findings from this basic
animal research," he says, "to make hypotheses about
human disorders."
And this is exactly what happened. A graduate student
named Lonnie Sears, who
was interested in studying the human brain's role in
learning disabilities, pointed out
to Steinmetz that the very brain structures hehad been
studying for their involvement
in classical conditioning, the cerebellum and hippocampus,
were implicated in autism
in humans. The result was the eye-blink experiment described
above, the first in a
planned series of experiments on people with autism that,
Steinmetz and Sears hope,
will shed light on the causes of the impairment and perhaps
lead to treatments. "It's a
wonderful example," he says, "of how you can mix basic
science research with ongoing
observations from clinical research to advance scientific
understanding of the human condition."
top
Chapter
6: Learning
Psychology Chapter
6, Quiz 1
1. Which of the following
is NOT involved in learning?
a. change
in behavior
b. caused
by maturation
c. relatively
permanent
d. results
from experience
2. In Pavlov's classical
conditioning experiment teaching dogs to respond to a bell, the meat was
the ______ and the bell was the ______.
a. CS;
US
b. UR;
CR
c. US;
CS
d. CR;
UR
3. After being conditioned
to show fear in the presence of a rat, Little Albert also was afraid of
a rabbit. This is known as:
a. stimulus
generalization.
b. spontaneous
recovery.
c. extinction.
d. higher
order conditioning.
4. Which of the following
is NOT true about conditioned taste aversion?
a. It
can take one trial to learn.
b. It
is a form of operant conditioning.
c. The
interstimulus interval can be hours.
d. None
of the above.
5. The statement that
"any response that produces satisfaction in a given situation becomes associated
with that situation and when that situation occurs again, the response
is more likely to be repeated" is known as the:
a. continuum
of preparedness.
b. statement
of classical conditioning.
c. law
of effect.
d. principle
of satisfaction.
6. The coach reinforces
each behavior that is a little closer to the ultimate goal in the procedure
called:
a. stimulus
discrimination.
b. shaping.
c. conditional
response.
d. spontaneous
recovery.
7. If Tommy's mother
no longer praised him for making his bed, he would probably stop making
it, due to:
a. spontaneous
recovery.
b. reinforcement.
c. aversive
stimulation.
d. extinction.
8. Each time Terry
rubs Shelley's back for 10 minutes, she gives him a kiss. He is on a ______
schedule of reinforcement.
a. fixed
ratio
b. variable
ratio
c. fixed
interval
d. variable
interval
9. Henry misbehaves
in class and his teacher yells at him. If his misbehaving increases, we
say that ______has occurred.
a. reinforcement
b. punishment
c. escape
conditioning
d. extinction
10. Since the breakup
with her boyfriend, Mary feels bad every time she hears "their song". Whenever
the radio announcer mentions the song, she changes radio stations so she
will not have to hear it. This is an example of
a. escape
conditioning.
b. negative
punishment.
c. classical
conditioning.
d. avoidance
conditioning.
11. Which of the following
is NOT a variable that influences the effectiveness of punishment?
a. proximity
b. intensity
c. validity
d. consistency
12. Aunt Louise always
brought candy when she visited, and thus every time the boys saw her they
thought of candy. If she stopped bringing candy, this association would
be weakened, a finding called:
a. extinction.
b. spontaneous
recovery.
c. stimulus
generalization.
d. higher
order conditioning.
13. When an individual
experiences stomach distress after having eaten something, ______ can occur.
a. operant
conditioning
b. higher
order conditioning
c. conditioned
taste aversion
d. extinction
14. Karen would much
rather play with her Barbies than practice her flute. Her mother only allows
her to play after she has practiced her flute, using the _______ principle.
a. Premack
b. variability
c. extinction
d. Thorndike
15. An example of secondary
reinforcement is most likely:
a. food.
b. money.
c. water
d. sex.
16. Julie was always
rewarded for picking up her room. She now is not rewarded and her cleaning
behaviorhas stopped. If she later occasionally picked up her room, we might
call this:
a. punishment.
b. aversive
conditioning.
c. spontaneous
recovery.
d. classical
conditioning.
17. The fear shown
by Little Albert to a loud noise is an example of:
a. an
unconditioned stimulus.
b. an
unconditioned response.
c. a
conditioned stimulus.
d. a
conditioned response.
18. In piecework, a
person might be rewarded for every five pieces made. This is an example
of which schedule of reinforcement
a. continuous.
b. fixed
interval.
c. fixed
ratio.
d. variable
ratio.
19. Removing a stone
that hurts from your shoe is an example of:
a. avoidance
conditioning.
b. negative
reinforcement.
c. punishment.
d. extinction.
20. Larry calls Marge
three times before she agrees to a date. If this sequence occurs over and
over, Larry is on a _______ schedule of reinforcement.
a. fixed
ratio
b. variable
ratio
c. variable
interval
d. fixed
interval
