Heading in red are key to the development of the United States Government.

Mayflower Compact

In the name of God, Amen. We whose names are under-written, the loyal subjects of our dread sovereign Lord, King James, by the grace of God, of Great Britain, France, and Ireland King, Defender of the Faith, etc.
Having undertaken, for the glory of God, and advancement of the Christian faith, and honor of our King and Country, a voyage to plant the first colony in the northern parts of Virginia, do by these presents solemnly and mutually, in the presence of God, and one of another, covenant and combine our selves together into a civil body politic, for our better ordering and preservation and furtherance of the ends aforesaid; and by virtue hereof to enact, constitute, and frame such just and equal laws, ordinances, acts, constitutions and offices, from time to time, as shall be thought most meet and convenient for the general good of the Colony, unto which we promise all due submission and obedience. In witness whereof we have hereunder subscribed our names at Cape Cod, the eleventh of November [New Style, November 21], in the year of the reign of our sovereign lord, King James, of England, France, and Ireland, the eighteenth, and of Scotland the fifty-fourth. Anno Dom. 1620.

For a full text, visit:http://www.law.ou.edu/hist/mayflow.html

Fundamental Orders of Connecticut

Adopted on January 14, 1639.
Adopted by members from towns of Hartford, Windsor, and Wethersfield.
Representatives met at Hartford.
Key players in framing the bill: Thomas Hooker, Roger Ludlow, John Haynes.
Orders consisted of preamble, 11 orders (laws).
Confirmed system that had been in place since 1633.
Charter of Connecticut replaced orders in 1662 (based on orders)

This is the Actual Text of the Fundamental Orders

For as much as it hath pleased Almighty God by the wise disposition of his divine providence so to order and dispose of things that we the Inhabitants and Residents of Windsor, Hartford and Wethersfield are now cohabiting and dwelling in and upon the River of Connectecotte and the lands thereunto adjoining; and well knowing where a people are gathered together the word of God requires that to maintain the peace and union of such a people there should be an orderly and decent Government established according to God, to order and dispose of the affairs of the people at all seasons as occasion shall require; do therefore associate and conjoin ourselves to be as one Public State or Commonwealth; and do for ourselves and our successors and such as shall be adjoined to us at any time hereafter, enter into Combination and Confederation together, to maintain and preserve the liberty and purity of the Gospel of our Lord Jesus which we now profess, as also, the discipline of the Churches, which according to the truth of the said Gospel is now practiced amongst us; as also in our civil affairs to be guided and governed according to such Laws, Rules, Orders and Decrees as shall be made, ordered, and decreed as followeth: http://www.law.ou.edu/hist/orders.html

1. In this section, it is declared that a court of law will meet once a year in Connecticut, for the purpose of upholding the law. The Orders state that there shall be six magistrates and one governor seated on this court, and that no person shall serve on the court for more than one year in a row.
2. In this section, it is stated that the governor shall be elected by secret ballot, and that the magistrates shall be elected by open voting.
3. This says that magistrates must have previous experience, and that no one town shall nominate more than one qualified person for the position of magistrate.
4. This says that magistrates can be reelected after a year of absence, and that no magistrate may perform his duties before having been sworn in in the presence of a court of law.

Legislation Leading Up to the Constitution

The Albany Plan of Union

Written by Benjamin Franklin in 1754, the Albany Plan was one of the earliest plans for uniting all of the individual colonies under one national government. Franklin created the Albany Plan during the French and Indian War when he realized that the colonies needed to be united "under one government so far as might be necessary for Defense and other important general purposes…" (Franklin's autobiography). The Albany Plan was considered along with many other plans by a Committee created just for that purpose. The Committee accepted Franklin's plan, but it failed to be ratified by any of the colonies, and England rejected the plan because it "was judg'd to have too much of the Democratic" (Franklin's autobiography). The Albany Plan included many ideas that are now present today in the Constitution. Franklin proposed that the national government be administered by a President General, appointed by the King of England. He also proposed a Grand Council, made up of a set number of representatives from each colony depending on the population of that colony. This is the basic set up of the Union that Franklin describes, but he goes on to explain the powers of each and how they relate to one another.

Circular Letter

Massachusetts Circular Letter- FEBRUARY 11, 1768 Province of Massachusetts Bay, February 11, I768. SIR, The House of Representatives of this province, have taken into their serious consideration, the great difficulties that must accrue to themselves and their constituents, by the operation of several acts of Parliament, imposing duties and taxes on the American colonies. As it is a subject in which every colony is deeply interested, they have no reason to doubt but your House is deeply impressed with its importance, and that such constitutional measures will be come into, as are proper. It seems to be necessary, that all possible care should be taken, that the representatives of the several assemblies, upon so delicate a point, should harmonize with each other. The House, therefore, hope that this letter will be candidly considered in no other light there as expressing a disposition freely to communicate their mind to a sister colony upon a common concern, in the same manner as they would be glad to receive the sentiments of your or any other House of Assembly on the continent. The House have humbly represented to the ministry, their own sentiments, that his Majesty's high court of Parliament is the supreme legislative power over the whole empire; that in all free states the constitution is fixed, and as the supreme legislative derives its power and authority from the constitution, it cannot overleap the bounds of it, without destroying its own foundation; that the constitution ascertains and limits both sovereignty and allegiance, and, therefore, his Majesty's American subjects, who acknowledge themselves bound by the ties of allegiance, have an equitable claim to the full enjoyment of the fundamental rules of the British constitution; that it is an essential, unalterable right, in nature, engrafted into the British constitution, as a fundamental law, and ever held sacred and irrevocable by the subjects within the realm, that what a man has honestly acquired is absolutely his own, which he may freely give, but cannot be taken from him without his consent; that the American subjects may, therefore, exclusive of any consideration of charter rights, with a decent firmness, adapted to the character of free men and subjects, assert this natural and constitutional right.

For the full text, visit http://www.multied.com/documents/MassCircular.html

Common Sense by Thomas Paine

Maintaining “the cause of America is in a great measure the cause of all mankind,” Paine passionately argued for independence from Great Britain and the ability of the young country to prosper unfettered by the oppressive and economically draining English.

The Virginia Bill of Rights

1. All men are free and independent, and have certain rights that cannot be denied; namely life, liberty, property, and happiness.
2. All power is in the hands of the people, and their elected officials are at all times amenable to them.
3. The government should be created to protect the people and their rights; and when the government fails to do these things the people have the right and duty to reform, alter, or abolish it.
4. No man, or group of men, can have special privileges unless they were chosen by the people to have them (i.e. elected official), and these positions are not hereditary.
5. The executive and legislative powers of the state are separate from the judiciary, and members of the first two should be replaced by regular elections in order to prevent corruption and oppression.
6. The public cannot be taxed or deprived of their property without their consent or the consent of their representatives.
7. All power of suspending or executing laws by any authority without the consent of the representatives of the people is injurious to their rights and ought not to be exercised.
8. In all capital or criminal prosecutions the accused has a right to a fair, speedy trial with an impartial jury, without whose unanimous consent he cannot be found guilty.
9. No excessive bail, nor cruel and unusual punishments.
10. No searching or seizure of objects or persons without sufficient evidence.
11. In lawsuits regarding property or between man and man, a trial by jury is preferable to any other.
12. All men are entitled to freedom of the press.
13. A militia is the proper, natural, and safe defense of a free state, but a standing militia during times of peace is dangerous to liberty and should be avoided. In all cases, the military is under strict subordination to the civil power.
14. The people have the right to a uniform government, and no government separate or independent of the government of Virginia ought to be erected.
15. These rights can be preserved to people only by adherence to justice, moderation, temperance, frugality, and virtue, and frequent recurrence to fundamental principles.
16. All men are entitled to freedom of religion.
This document was adopted by the Virginia Convention, and it influenced Jefferson in the writing of the Declaration of Independence and was the basis of the Bill of Rights.

Declaration of Independence

Signing of the Decleration of Independence, July 4, 1776, Painted by John Trumbull, located in the Capitol Building in Washington D.C.

On June 11, 1776, a committee was appointed by the Second Continental Congress to draft a statement on the reasons for separation from England. The committee included John Adams, Benjamin Franklin, Thomas Jefferson, Robert Livingston, and Roger Sherman. However, Jefferson was the chief author, for it was he that composed the first draft, then submitted it to the others for review. Minor changes were made to it by the committee, and later by the members of the Second Continental Congress, so when the Declaration of Independence was adopted on July 4, 1776, it was mostly Jefferson's words. The Declaration of Independence included many things. First and foremost, it stated that men are "created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty, and the pursuit of Happiness." It also states that Government should be created to protect those rights, and if it fails to do so the people have an obligation to "alter or abolish it". Next, the document includes a list of grievances and wrongs that the King of England and Parliament practiced on the colonies. It then states that the colonies gave fair warning to England of their feelings regarding these grievances, and that England's unresponsiveness drove them to declare their independence. Finally, it ends with the signature of every delegate.

Articles of Confederation

The Articles of Confederation defined the first form of national government ever created in the United States. They were drafted by John Dickinson of Pennsylvania, heatedly debated over by members of the Second Continental Congress, and adopted in greatly revised form in November of 1777. To take effect, the Articles had to be ratified by all the states, so they were not adopted by the states until March 1, 1781. When the Articles were created, the United States had just ended their war for independence with England, and because of their previous experiences with national government, the delegates of the Second Continental Congress were extremely hesitant to endow their new national government with any powers whatsoever. As a result, the Articles of Confederation define a system where the central government is extremely weak, and is easily dominated by the stronger state governments. Below are some of the points mentioned by the Articles:

- Congress could request that states pay taxes to the national government, but the states didn't have to.

- There was no system of federal courts; the only courts were at the state level and controlled by the states.

- Each state received one vote in the Congress regardless of size.

- Laws being proposed by the Congress could only be passed if it was supported by nine of the thirteen states.

- Each state retained its sovereignty and every right not expressly delegated to the central government.

- Congress was allowed to control the conduct of foreign affairs, partial control over currency, and to establish post offices. - Congress was forbidden to engage in war, negotiate treaties or alliances, coin money, emit bills of credit, or borrow and appropriate money without obtaining the consent of a majority of the states.
The Articles and its weak central government caused many problems. Congress could not pay its war debts because it did not have the power to tax the states. European nations had little respect for a nation that could not pay its debts, and Britain and France threatened to take advantage of U.S. weakness continuing to develop their colonies in the Americas. Also, Captain Daniel Shays led farmers in an uprising to protest high state taxes, imprisonment for debt, and lack of paper money in what became known as Shays Rebellion. All these problems led to the Constitutional Convention in 1787 and the creation of the Constitution of the United States.

Ordinance of Religious Freedom

In response to public attacks on his religiosity, Thomas Jefferson wrote in a letter, "‘I am a real Christian.’" He had just completed excising tracts from the New Testament to create his Philosophy of Jesus, later called The Jefferson Bible. While Thomas Jefferson did not believe in the Christian precept of the trinity, he did have a strong belief in a supreme being, a creator of man and the world. Disregarding his personal convictions, Jefferson labored his whole life to create disestablished religion and to guarantee that religious liberty was not abridged. Those who belonged to the various religious sects of his day, those who would follow sects which were unfounded in his lifetime, and those who would declare they were atheists or agnostics were all protected from persecution by his work and the furtherance of his work by James Madison.
In 1779, Jefferson proposed an Ordinance of Religious Freedom. While this failed to be adopted by the Virginia legislature, it was virtually the same measure when adopted as the Virginia Statute for Religious Freedom by the House of Burgesses on January 16, 1786.

The Radical Plan of Reconstruction

Reconstruction Overview
After the Civil War, the Union was faced with many problems. These included:

• Readmission of southern States into the Union
• Rebuilding the economy of the South

• Support for the newly freed African Americans

The Radical Plan of Reconstruction was much harsher than either Lincoln's or Johnson's. The Republicans in Congress wanted to punish the South for their insurrection, and also to help freed blacks start off on the right foot. This radical plan included:

- The Freedmen's Bureau Act, which increased the services and protection offered by the Freedman's Bureau
- The Civil Rights Act of 1866
- Ratification of Amendment XIV
- The Report of the joint committee, which stated that former states of the Confederacy were not allowed representation in Congress, and also stated that Congress, not the President, had the authority to decide whether to readmit a Confederate state to the Union
- The Reconstruction Acts of 1867, which included:

• Placing the South under military occupation

• Dividing the South into five military districts
• Forcing the Confederate states to ratify Amendment XIV before they could return to the Union
• Forcing the Confederate states to include in their new constitutions the right to vote to all adult males, regardless of race

The Radical Plan of Reconstruction went on until 1872, when the Radical Republicans in Congress grew tired of fighting with the stubborn Southerners. They began to be replaced in the House and Senate by the new Liberal Republicans, who supported removing the troops from the southern States. The End of Reconstruction was marked by the passage of the Amnesty Act of 1872 and the Compromise of 1877.

Some Factors that Contributed to the feeling behind the Radical's Plan:
Revenge - Many Northerners felt that the previously slave-holding South should be punished for their actions
Helping the freedman - The Radical Republicans thought that the federal government should be involved in assisting the newly-freed slaves in order to make sure that they have jobs, land, etc.
Power - The Republicans wanted to remain in power throughout the newly reformed nation
Protective Tariffs - Tariffs to help the industries within the U.S.
National Banking System - They wanted a system that would be beneficial to businesses
Land policies - They wanted settlers to have easier access to land
Railroad development - Federal funds going to help build railroads
Congressional power - Demonstrate the power of Congress over the power of the President

The New Deal

Tennessee Valley Authority Home Owners Loan Corporation National Youth Administration Farm Credit Administration Works Progress Administration Back to Top

Tennessee Valley Authority

• Bought, built and operated dams
• Generated and sold electrical power
• Planned flood control and reforestation projects
• Withdrew poor land from farming
• Used rates as a measure to gauge rates charged by private utilities

Home Owners Loan Corporation

• Provided funding for home mortgages

National Youth Administration

• Provided work-relief, training and employment to those aged sixteen to twenty-five who were not students
• Provided part time employment for students to enable them to stay in school

Works Progress Administration

• Provided employment in infrastructure projects
• Created projects for artists, writers, actors and musicians

Farm Credit Administration

• Provided funding for farm mortgages

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Important Meetings

The Virginia Resolutions First Continental Congress Second Continental Congress Constitutional Convention Back to Top

The Virginia Resolutions

Patrick Henry, who was a new member to the House of Burgesses undertook a radical move against the authority of Parliament. In coalition with George Johnston, a representative from Fairfax county, Henry took the floor in May of 1765.
That day, only 39 members in attendance, Johnston moved that the House resolve itself into a committee of the whole, Henry seconded the motion, and proceeded to offer a shocking series of resolutions. In the absence of the normal, conservative, leadership, all five of the offered resolutions were adopted. The first four were merely strident. The fifth required several hours of heated debate & even then passed by only one vote.

Full Text of the Five Passed Virginia Resolves
Resolved, that the first adventurers and settlers of His Majesty's colony and dominion of Virginia brought with them and transmitted to their posterity, and all other His Majesty's subjects since inhabiting in this His Majesty's said colony, all the liberties, privileges, franchises, and immunities that have at any time been held, enjoyed, and possessed by the people of Great Britain.
Resolved, that by two royal charters, granted by King James I, the colonists aforesaid are declared entitled to all liberties, privileges, and immunities of denizens and natural subjects to all intents and purposes as if they had been abiding and born within the Realm of England.
Resolved, that the taxation of the people by themselves, or by persons chosen by themselves to represent them, who can only know what taxes the people are able to bear, or the easiest method of raising them, and must themselves be affected by every tax laid on the people, is the only security against a burdensome taxation, and the distinguishing characteristic of British freedom, without which the ancient constitution cannot exist.
Resolved, that His Majesty's liege people of this his most ancient and loyal colony have without interruption enjoyed the inestimable right of being governed by such laws, respecting their internal policy and taxation, as are derived from their own consent, with the approbation of their sovereign, or his substitute; and that the same has never been forfeited or yielded up, but has been constantly recognized by the kings and people of Great Britain.
Resolved, therefor that the General Assembly of this Colony have the only and exclusive Right and Power to lay Taxes and Impositions upon the inhabitants of this Colony and that every Attempt to vest such Power in any person or persons whatsoever other than the General Assembly aforesaid has a manifest Tendency to destroy British as well as American Freedom.

This fifth resolution was rescinded the next day. Henry, perhaps believing that the matter would stand, had departed. The conservative members re-formed on May 31st for the purpose of removing all five resolutions, but succeeded only in removing this one. The text of it was found with Patrick Henry's will:

First Continental Congress

September 5, 1774

In Philadelphia's Carpenters Hall

Accomplishments:

· Galloway Plan of Union This plan of union was created by Joseph Galloway, a conservative delegate from Pennsylvania. It proposed the creation of an American parliament to work together with the British Parliament on matters concerning the colonies, with each having veto power over the other. This plan was not adopted by the Congress.

· Suffolk Resolves Created by Dr. Joseph Warren, the Suffolk resolves were a collection of resolutions that were adopted by the Congress over the Galloway Plan. The resolutions included declaring the Coercive Acts to be unconstitutional and void, and calling for a boycott on all British imports.

· The Association - Organized a complete ban on British imports and exports until Parliament revoked the Coercive Acts and the Quebec Act.

· Declaration of Rights and Grievances - A list of American complaints addressed to King George III rather than Parliament, it informed the king that if the complaints were properly addressed, the colonies would remain loyal. However, it also stated that if the complaints were not addressed, the colonies would take the necessary steps to ensure that they were.

· Future Meeting - The delegates agreed to meet again on May 10, 1775 if King George III did not respond to their declaration.

Second Continental Congress

John Adams, Robert Morris, Alexander Hamilton, Thomas Jefferson, the "Leaders of the Continental Congress" according to Augustus Tholey in 1894 - lithograph from Library of Congress

May 10, 1775

In the State House in Philadelphia

Accomplishments:

· Military Matters - The Congress appointed George Washington as the General of the Colonial armies, an act that won the support of many wealthy Southern landowners for the armed struggle.

· Statements of Position - Two main statements of position were written. The first was the Olive Branch Petition, proposed by John Dickinson. It stated that America remained loyal to the king, but disapproved of the actions made by Parliament. The second, more radical, statement was the Declaration of the Causes and Necessity of Taking up Arms. It threatened that America would declare its independence if its rights were not restored.

· Financing the War - Congress tried to finance the war by borrowing money and issuing paper certificates to domestic and foreign sources. However, this caused massive deflation, so buying enough supplies for the armies remained a problem throughout the entire war.

· Independence - Independence was not greatly supported until Thomas Paine published Common Sense in January of 1776. Soon after, the Declaration of Independence was drafted by Thomas Jefferson, and on July 4th, 1776 the declaration was approved and signed by the members of the Congress.

· Opening of Diplomatic Channels - Silas Deane was dispatched to France in 1776, where he successfully secured supplies, arms, and the help of many experienced European military officers. His visit was followed by Arthur Lee and Benjamin Franklin, which resulted in the conclusion of the Franco-American Alliance.

· Legislation - The Congress did not have much power in creating and enforcing legislation. However, they did draft, debate, and approve the Articles of Confederation, which became the basis of American central government for almost a decade.

Declaration of Causes and Necessities for Taking Up Arms

At the brink of the Revolutionary War, the esteemed members of the Second Continental Congress found that there was still no consensus among the American public about their will to fight. There were always strong Patriots who would die for the cause, but that would not be enough. Through the use of persuasion and expressive language, this document conveys the wishes of the Continental Congress to the average American Soldier.

This document was prepared by the Second Continental Congress to explain to the world why the British colonies had taken up arms against Great Britain. It is a combination of the work of Thomas Jefferson and Colonel John Dickinson (well-known for his series "Letters from a Pennsylvania Farmer."). Jefferson completed the first draft, but it was perceived by the Contenential Congress as too harsh and militant; Dickinson prepared the second. The final document combined the work of the two.

A full text of this document can be obtained at: http://www.nationalcenter.org/1775DeclarationofArms.html.

The Constitutional Convention

Signing the Constitution, Courtesy Collection of the Architect of the Capitol

Location & Date: May 25 to September 17, 1789 in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania

Presiding President: General George Washington

Prior History
State representatives convened at the Annapolis Convention to debate about extending national authority over commerce. The delegates decided that more urgent issues were at hand than just commerce, and proposed for another convention the next year in Philadelphia "for the sole and express purpose of revising the Articles of Confederation".

Reasons for Convention
- states failed to adhere to the Treaty of Paris because of a lack of federal enforcement
- federal government had no taxing power and was on the brink of bankruptcy
- foreign nations were reluctant to trade with the U.S. since Congress had no way of enforcing trade agreements, citizens could refuse to pay for imports
- European neighbors had little respect for a young nation with a weak government
- Shay's Rebellion, a armed uprising against high state taxes and imprisonment for debt
- in conclusion, the Articles of Confederation provided for a weak national government which caused the above problems

Key Supporter(s) for the Convention: James Madison & Alexander Hamilton

Opposition against the Convention
- fear that a strong federal government would lend to aristocracy and further tyranny as experienced before the Revolutionary War
- with high rivalry amongst states, states supporters feared a strong national government would play favors and give an unfair advantage to some states

Key Opponent(s) to the Convention: Patrick Henry

Delegates Information
- 55 delegates from 12 states (Rhode Island did not attend)
- 34 delegates were lawyers, others were merchants or planters
- white males who were above average in wealth, had a college-education, well acquainted with the law, and relatively young with most in their 20s to 30s

Beginning Agreements
- delegates agreed to disregard original instructions to revise the Articles of Confederation but instead decided to develop a new constitution all together
- all records of dialogs made during the convention would be kept secret for thirty years in order to promote free exchange of ideas and avoid political endangerment for the delegates

Key Issues

(1) Representation
- Larger States-representation in Congress should be based on state population
- Smaller Sates-there should be equal representation in Congress
(2) Slavery
- Northern States-slaves should not be counted as part of the population when determining representation, but should be counted for taxes
- Southern States-slaves should be counted as part of the population when determining representation, but should not be counted for taxes
(3) Trade
- Northern States-wanted federal government to regulate interstate commerce and foreign trade
- Southern States-didn't want federal control over trade for fear of interference with the slave trade and export taxes on tobacco and rice
(4) Executive Power and Election
- disagreements over term of life (live-long office or shorter)
- what kinds of power should the executive branch have (a lot or limited)
- how should the president be elected (by the people or by Congress)

The Virginia Plan & New Jersey Plan

The Virginia Plan was developed James Madison (VA) introduced by Edmund Randolph (VA). Madison believed strongly in the system of checks-and-balances. The New Jersey Plan was introduced by William Patterson (NJ). Patterson kept the unicameral Congress from the Article but expanded on the powers of Congress. The Connecticut Plan, or The Great Compromise, was introduced by Roger Sherman (CT). Sherman wanted to absolve issues over representation between large and small states.

Other Compromises

Three-fifths Compromise-each slave is to be counted as 3/5 of a person when determining a state's representation in Congress and taxation purposes
Halt on Slavery Abolition-the slave trade would be protected for at least 20 years, up to 1808, at which time Congress will readdress the issues of abolition

Commercial Compromise-Congress has the power to regulate interstate and foreign commerce, which included issuing tariffs but prohibited taxes on exports

Ratification

With the backing of such prestigious people as George Washington and Benjamin Franklin, the Constitution gained some backing but faced many obstacles on the course to ratification.In an effort to win over the approval of the states, Alexander Hamilton, John Jay, and James Madison wrote a series of essays supporting the Constitution in The Federalists. Historically, supporters of the Constitution were known as federalists, and opponents were known as anti-federalists. Anti-federalists feared the stronger national government would turn into a tyranny. Still other opponents, like Richard Henry Lee, felt the Constitution lacked an assertion of individual and therefore called for the inclusion of a bill of rights. Pennsylvania was the first state to ratify the Constitution on December 12, 1787. Rhode Island was the last to ratify, waiting until May 29, 1790.