What led up to this act?
During this time there was a growing idea that perhaps the trade of human beings was immoral, especially in the North. To curtail this trade, this act was enacted.

What did this act entail?
It stated that in accordance with the Constitution of the United States, no new slaves were to be imported into the United States.

What were some consequences of this act?
There was naturally, some dissension from Southerners, but the slavery issue remained relatively inconsequential until the increased expansion into the Louisiana Territory.

Indian Removal Act of 1830

This act was a precursor to the Indians being shut out of the Continental United States through Manifest Destiny

What led up to this act?
The Seminole Wars played a large part.

The First Seminole War (1817-1818)
After the Revolutionary War, Spain regained control of Florida under the terms of the Treaty of Paris. The Seminoles were encouraged by Spain to settle in the area in order to serve as a buffer between Spanish Florida and the United States. Florida also attracted runaway slaves who sought to escape prosecution from their masters. The U.S. resented the Seminoles for harboring runaway slaves, and launched an attack in 1817 which began the First Seminole War. General Andrew Jackson led a successful military campaign. The war ended with the Adams-Onis Treaty which ceded Florida to the United States. Congress immediately called for a treaty to relocate the Seminoles to Indian territory. Though some went, many stayed behind and refused to sign the treaty.

What did this act entail?
During the 19th century, many Americans became greedy for lands to plant cotton. As the United States expanded further West, these Americans encountered an obstacle; the Indians already owned this land. So in order to surpass this obstacle, the white settlers pressured the federal government into doing something. The federal government responded by passing the Indian Removal Act on May 26, 1830.
The Indian Removal Act stated that all Indians had to trade their lands east of the Mississippi River for different lands further west. It also stated that any Indians that chose to remain became citizens of the state they resided in. This act forced almost 46,000 Native Americans from their lands east of the Mississippi and opened up 25 million acres to white settlement and slavery.

What was a consequence of this act?
The Second Seminole War (1835-1842)
In 1832 some Seminole tribes agreed to the Treaty of Payne's Landing which ordered the Indians to relocate in three years. When troops were sent in to enforce the treaty, however, they were met with great opposition, thus initiating the Second Seminole War. The war was drawn out by the Seminole's effective guerilla tactics. The U.S. government ended up spending $20 million on the war effort. In 1842 the war ended with no treaty. At that point, most Seminole had been relocated to the Indian Territory.

The Third Seminole War (1855)
The Third Seminole War arose over land disputes in Florida between the remaining Seminoles and white settlers. The war effectively reduced the Seminole in Florida to 200 by the end in 1855.

The Treaty of New Echota

In 1830 President Andrew Jackson signed the Indian Removal Act, formalizing his olicy of sending the Indians living east of the Mississippi River off lands wanted by white settlers. During the next decade, this government pursued removal these tribes through treaties that the Native Americans were coerced into. This unfair effort to remove Cherokee from their lands in Georgia produced the Treaty of New Echota, signed by a small faction of the Cherokee Nation in 1835. The majority of the Cherokees refused to leave their homes in Georgia and rightfully sued the state of Georgia in the U.S. Supreme Court in order to stay in this territory. However, Secretary of War Lewis Cass and President Jackson grew impatient with the Cherokees, they acted unilaterally (without respecting the system of checks and balances) by authorizing the Reverend John F. Schermerhorn to sign a treaty with a group of Cherokees who had concluded that further resistance was futile. This group signed a treaty at New Echota, Georgia, on December 29, 1835. The agreement exchanged title to all Cherokee lands east of the Mississippi for $5 million in addition to a large tract in Oklahoma. Despite protests by the Cherokee National Council the U.S. Senate ratified the Treaty of New Echota in May 1836. After signing the New Echota treaty the parties involved left for Oklahoma. However, Chief Ross and the majority of the tribe continued to resist, arguing that the treaty was invalid because it had not been properly ratified. In April 1838, Ross submitted a petition containing 15,665 signatures to Congress, requesting that the United States void the Cherokee removal treaty. In May the War Department sent General Winfield Scott to Georgia to round up the resisting tribesmen and begin their removal. This began the migration known as the Trail of Tears, during which the tribe moved west, losing one quarter of its number in the process. In June of the following year those who had signed the Treaty of New Echota were killed by Cherokee assailants as punishment for selling the tribe's lands in Georgia.

Trail of Tears, Painting by Robert Lindneux, located in the Woolaroc Museum

The Compromise of 1850

What led up to this problem?
In 1849 California applied for statehood with an antislavery constitution. Southerners were immediately angered and some radicals threatened to secede. Having California as a free state would have greatly disturbed the delicate balance between free and slave states. This conflict quickly dissipated the peace provided by the Missouri Compromise. Even without the California crisis, the Missouri Compromise was becoming outdated. Since the initial compromise, the U.S. had expanded rapidly with new territories from the Mexican War like Mexico and Texas. The big question was should these territories be free or should they permit slavery? Another issue involved Texas' boundary lines.

What was the solution?
Henry Clay, known as "The Great Compromiser", again stepped in to solve the crisis. Henry proposed the following:

• California will be admitted to the Union as a free state.


• The land gained from Mexico would be divided into two territories: Utah and New Mexico. The settlers in the area will assert the slavery issue through popular sovereignty.


• The government will assume disputed land between Texas and New Mexico for $10 million.


• Slave trade is to be banned in the District of Columbia while still allowing for slavery


• A stricter Fugitive Slave Act is to be adopted.

Was there opposition?
Southerners argued that the compromise didn't give the South equal rights in the new territory. Northerners for antislavery opposed to a stricter Fugitive Slave Act.

What were the consequences?
The Compromise of 1850 bought time but didn't absolve the strong rift between the North and South. In retrospect the peace was short-lived. Controversy over popular sovereignty and the Fugitive Slave Act would add the tension in the long run.

The Fugitive Slave Act of 1850

What led up to this act? The act was initiated by the Compromise of 1850, which promised stricter laws against fugitive slaves in order to appease the South. This act serves to supplement the previous Fugitive Slave Law of 1793.

What did this act entail? The act called for fugitive slave laws whose purpose was to capture runaway slaves and return them to their masters. These laws strongly restricted fugitive slave rights and discouraged people from helping a fugitive slave. If a fugitive slave claimed to be a free, they would be denied the right to trail by jury. Fugitive slave cases were placed in the jurisdiction of the federal courts. Special government officials could issue an arrest warrant on the suspicion of a fugitive slave.

The Kansas-Nebraska Act of 1854

What led up to this act? The act is the brainchild of Senator Douglas of Illinois. Douglas was interested in passing a bill for a transcontinental railroad that went through Chicago, where he had real estates interests. The plan lacked Southern support because the railroad would be mostly in the north and would not benefit the South. Douglas sought to gain Southern favor by introducing the Kansas-Nebraska Act which tailored to the South's wishes.

What did this act entail? The act separated the Nebraska Territory into the Kansas Territory and the Nebraska Territory. Popular sovereignty would be used to settle the slavery issue.

What were some of the consequences of this act? The new territories gave the South an opportunity to claimed it as slave state and thus add to its' power. The act quickly stirred up sectional rivalry that was partially settled during the Compromise of 1850. Frederick Douglass, an opponent of the act, warned that the act was "an open invitation to a fierce and bitter strife". His words would be frightfully true.

• "Bleeding Kansas": The Nebraska Territory was located very far up north and therefore would undoubtedly become a free state. Kansas, however, was up for grabs. After the legislation was passed, pro-slavery and anti-slavery settlers quickly migrated to Kansas. Both groups were eager to claim the area for their side. The Kansas territory was settled by antislavery farmers prior to the act. Settlers from the neighboring slave state of Missouri crossed the border to set up pro-slavery homestead in Kansas. The North reacted aggressively to the so called "border ruffians". The New England Emigrant Aid Society was organized to fund for anti-slavery settlement in Kansas. The abolitionist minister Henry Ward Beecher provided his followers with rifles. It was becoming obvious the conflict would soon turn bloody. A pro-slavery government was set up in Lecompton, Kansas. Likewise Topeka, Kansas became the anti-slavery settlers' headquarters. In 1856 conflict broke out in Lawrence initiated by pro-slavery supporters. In retaliation, John Brown, a stern abolitionist, attacked on the pro-slavery settlement of Pottawatomie Creek.



• "Sumner-Brooks incident: The Kansas controversy precipitated in Congress as well. In response to the Lawrence attack, Senator Charles Sumner from Massachusetts lashed out against Democrats. Specifically, Sumner verbally attacked Senator Andrew Butler. Two days later, Butler's nephew Preston Brooks attacked Sumner with a cane during one of his speeches. Brooks declared that Sumner wasn't good enough for a duel but fit for a cane. The conflicts between North and South were coming to more violence.

What led up to this act?
After the beginning of the Civil War, the North needed a steady cash flow, and needed to ensure that their industries would not suffer during war time.

What did this act entail?
Raised tariff rates to increase revenue and protect American manufacturers. Its passage initiated a Republican program of high protective tariffs to help industrialists.

What were some consequences of this act?
Affected the Post-War policies in Reconstruction

Homestead Act of 1862

What led up to this act?
Although the West was expanding quickly, this act ensured greater structure. Also, it represented the last remnants of Jefferson's dreams of a nation of yeoman farmers.

What did this act entail?
This act promoted settlements of the Great Plains by offering parcels of 160 acres of public land free to whatever person or family would farm that land for at least five years.

What were some consequences of this act?
It did what it was intended to do - increase settlement in the West.

Morril Land Grant Act of 1862

What led up to this act?
Essentially, the intent of this act was the same as that of the previous one. It also continued the tradition of agrarian economy with agricultural colleges.

What did this act entail?
This encourages states to use the sale of federal land grants to maintain agricultural and technical colleges.

What were some consequences of this act?
Aided in the creation of numerous technical schools around the nation. (MIT was actually created around this time, but probably not as a direct result of this act).

Pacific Railway Act of 1862

What led up to this act?
The railroad growth in the past few decades had occurred extensively in the North. It is possible that this act was to encourage Western development to stay with the Northern cause.

What did this act entail?
This act authorized the building of a transcontinental railroad over a northern route in order to link the economies of the two coasts.

What were some consequences of this act?
Created a Transcontinental Railroad.

The Freedman's Bureau Act

What led up to this act? The Reconstruction Legislature being passed by the South was already limiting the freedoms of the newly freed African Americans. The creation of the Freedman's Bureau was designed to bypass that.

What did this act entail? In March of 1865, Congress created the Bureau of Refugees, Freedmen, and Abandoned lands. The purpose of this bureau was to provide food, shelter, and medical aid to those devastated by the war, which mainly included the newly freed blacks and homeless whites. At first, the Freedmen's Bureau could resettle freed blacks on the confiscated lands of Confederates, but this was complicated when President Johnson pardoned Confederate landowners and returned their confiscated lands to them. However, the Freedmen's Bureau's greatest accomplishment was the educating of free African Americans. It established nearly 3,000 schools, including several colleges that successfully educated about 200,000 African Americans before federal funding was withdrawn in 1870.

Failed Wade-Davis Bill of 1864

What led up to this bill? Many Republicans in Congress objected to Lincoln's policies, believing that they weren't strict enough. These Republicans felt that the rebellious southern states should be treated as conquered territory, and passed the Wade-Davis Bill in 1864.

What did this bill entail? This bill included:

• Military governors to rule the southern States
• 50% of the voters need to take the loyalty oath
• Only non-Confederates can vote for a new state Constitution

Lincoln refused to sign the bill, and pocket-vetoed it after Congress adjourned.

Civil Rights Act of 1866

What led up to this act? The creation of the Black Codes by the Southern states after the creation of the 13th Amendment led to this act.

What did this act entail? This pronounced all African Americans to be US citizens and provided a legal shield against the Black Codes. Since some felt that this should be added into the Constitution, the 14th Amendment was added.

What were some consequences of this act? Although in the beginning this act was beneficial, allowing African Americans to retain their rights, soon Southern legislators found ways to bypass it. Thus despite this and other acts, these conditions continued. It was not until the 1960s that significant changes occured with the 24th Amendment and the Voting Rights Act.

The Amnesty Act of 1872

What led up to this act? Although many of the restrictions on Confederate leaders and supporters were necessary, their presence was crippling the South and the Southern Economy. If the legislators did not want to risk another seccession, they needed to remove them.

What did this act entail? The Amnesty Act removed all the remaining restrictions on the ex-Confederates, except for on the top leaders.

What were some consequences of this act? Since now these Southern Supporters were back in power, they could influence the legislature once more, in effect cancelling out some of the reforms that Reconstruction had brought.

Civil Rights Act of 1875

What led up to this act? Although many amendments and acts had been passed to allow for equal opportunities for African Americans, there continued to be mistreatment. This act was designed to work against this.

What did this act entail? This guaranteed equal accommodations to African Americans in public places, and prohibited courts from excluding African Americans from serving as jury members

What were some consequences of this act? As with the previous Civil Rights Act, there were some initial benefits, but until the 1960s there remained unequal facilities. (See Civil Rights of 1964)

The Compromise of 1877

What led up to this? The Southern States were again annoyed with the political situation and the new Liberal Republicans were eager to get their vote. In fact, in the election of 1866, Rutherford Hayes promised Southern States that he would remove all troops from their states in order to get 20 additional Electoral Votes against Samuel Tilden.

What did this entail? The Compromise of 1877 removed all federal troops from the southern States.

What were some consequences of this act? Since this effectively marked the end of the Reconstruction, the South began to fall back into many of the racist practices that they used before (other than slavery).

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Acts by the USA (1878 - 1939)

The New Deal The Bland-Allison Act The Posse-Comitatus Act The Chinese Exclusion Act The Civil Service Act The Interstate Commerce Act The Dawes Severalty Act The Hatch Act of 1887 The Sherman Silver Purchase Act The Sherman Antitrust Act The Foraker Act The Newlands Reclamation Act The Elkins Act and the Hepburn Act The Food and Drug Act & Meat Inspection Act The The Tillman Act The Publicity Act The Federal Reserve Act The Clayton Antitrust Act The Jones Act The Adamson Railway Act The Federal Farm Loan Act The Espionage Act The Sedition Act The Selective Service Act The Volstead Act The Fordney-McCumber Tariff Act The Indian Reorganization Act The Hatch Act (1939) The Neutrality Acts Back to Top

The Bland-Alison Act of 1878

What led up to this act? At the time, the sentiments of a number of Western radicals were towards the free coinage of silver. As you recall, in 1873, Congress had demonitized silver, tying the currency firmly to the gold standard. This action was further supported by the Specie Resumption Act in 1875. However, this decision may have led to the ensuing Panic of 1873. Thereby, this act worked towards the reinstatement of silver as legal tender.

What did this act entail? Richards P. Bland, a Congressman from Missouri, was able to gain passage of a bill that provided for liberal coinage of silver. The more conservative Senate toned down the House proposal and with the support of Senator William B. Allison of Iowa agreed on the terms of what became the Bland-Allison Act:

• The U.S. Treasury was instructed to purchase between $2 million and $4 million worth of silver each month from the western mines
• The silver was to be purchased at market rates, not at a predetermined ratio pegged to the value of gold
• The metal was to be minted into silver dollars as legal tender

What were some consequences of this act? Reactions to this measure were relatively predictable. The western radicals (i.e. miners and debtors) argued that this act did not go far enough. The conservative forces took the opposite approach, urging repeal of the act, and maintained the economic sanity could only be returned with the gold standard. President Rutherford B. Hayes, influenced by industrial and banking interests, vetoed the measure. Congress promptly overrode the veto. This act represented the return to bimetallism. It was changed significantly by the Sherman Silver Act.

The Posse-Comitatus Act 1878

What led up to this act? Many of the actions of Lincoln were unconstitutional during the course of the Civil War. However, they were a necessity. This is an act that marked certain boundaries of executive power.

What did this act entail? Reconstruction Era criminal law proscribing use of Army (later, Air Force) to "execute the laws" except where expressly authorized by Constitution or Congress. Limit on use of military for civilian law enforcement also applies to Navy by regulation.

What were some consequences of this act? This act generally prohibits direct participation of Department of Defense personnel in law enforcement (e.g., search, seizure, and arrests). For example, Coast Guard Law Enforcement Detachments (LEDETS) serve aboard Navy vessels and perform the actual boardings of interdicted suspect drug smuggling vessels and, if needed, arrest their crews). Positive results have been realized especially from Navy ship/aircraft involvement.

The Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882

What led up to this act? With the influx of Chinese laborers because of the rapid construction of railroads in the mid nineteenth century, the government felt that their presence endangered the good order of certain localities.

What did this act entail? Chinese laborers were thereby prohibited from entering the country for the next ten years. The Chinese Exclusion Act required the few non-laborers who sought entry to obtain certification from the Chinese government that they were qualified to immigrate. The 1882 Exclusion Act also placed new requirements on Chinese who had already entered the country. If they left the United States, they had to obtain certifications to re-enter. Congress, moreover, refused State and Federal courts the right to grant citizenship to Chinese resident aliens, although these courts could still deport them.

What were some consequences of this act? Although Chinese non-laborers were technically allowed to immigrate to the United States, this group found it increasingly difficult to prove that they were not laborers because the 1882 act defined excludables as "skilled and unskilled laborers and Chinese employed in mining." Thus very few Chinese could enter the country under the 1882 law. The Geary Law in 1892 extended this act for an additional 10 years, and this extension was made permanent in 1902 and added even more restrictions on resident Chinese. By the 1930s and 40s the Chinese agitation had quieted, but the full damage was not repaired until the 1965 Immigration Act.

The Civil Service Act (1883)

What led up to this act? The assassination of President James Garfield by someone who thought he had been promised a job in the Garfield Administration generated new pressure for a change in the way people were appointed to federal positions. Prior to this, people were appointed by what was called patronage, largely in response to the financial or other contributions they made to the presidential campaign. This was known as the Spoils System. The influence of money in political campaigns had become especially strong in the post-Civil War era because of the concentration of new corporate wealth in the industrial economy. This type of corruption led to the rise of the Progressive movement which opposed patronage and other corrupt practices.

What did this act entail? The Pendleton Act or Civil Service Act established a system of Civil Service exams through which government jobs were to be filled on the basis of qualifications, not party affiliation. This came to be known as the Merit System.

What were some consequences of this act? At the time 10 percent of federal jobs were filled by examination. Today, 90 percent are so filled.

The Interstate Commerce Act of 1886

What led up to this act? Many farmers began to resent the apparent stranglehold the railroads exerted over many parts of the country. However, the postwar presidents and many in Congress resisted intervention into economic matters. Early efforts through the Grange movement to bring some form of regulation to the giants were made at the state level, but those measures were later struck down by the Supreme Court. [See Gibbons v. Ogden]

What did this act entail? In 1887, Congress passed the Interstate Commerce Act which created the Interstate Commerce Commission, the first true federal regulatory agency. It was designed to address the issues of railroad abuse and discrimination and required the following:

• Shipping rates had to be "reasonable and just"
• Rates had to be published
• Secret rebates were outlawed
• Price discrimination against small markets was made illegal.

Although the law granted the Commission power to investigate abuses and summon witnesses, it lacked the resources to accomplish its lofty goals. Later presidents would assure that reform would not go too far, by appointing pro-railroad commissioners.

What were some consequences of this act? The Interstate Commerce Act addressed the problem of railroad monopolies by setting guidelines for how the railroads could do business. This reduced the number of monopolies [at least those related to railroads], and encouraged small businesses.

The Dawes Severalty Act of 1887

What led up to this act? Even now, there were a lot of face-offs between the settlers in the West and the Indian Tribes. After the violation of the Fort Laramie treaty, the Indians had become wary of agreements with the United States. As a result, many important Indian leaders were murdered, including Sitting Bull. There were also massacres at Wounded Knee and Sand Creek. Many reformers believed that the only way to get rid of the "Indian Problem" was to forcibly assimilate them into the American culture.

What did this act entail? The purpose was to end tribal ownership of lands and give them to individual Indian families instead. Once Indians were given out of the way plots of land, isolated from their tribes, hopefully they would no longer wish to fight the settlers, and perhaps they could be Americanized.

What were some consequences of this act? However, the Dawes Act did not achieve its intended purpose. Few of the Indians wanted to farm, and the land that they were given was the poorest farmland that was available. In addition, the Indians did not understand the value of their land, and sold it for a fraction of its value to the settlers.

The Hatch Act of 1887

What did this act entail? It established agricultural stations in connection with the colleges already established. It has no connection with the later Hatch Acts of 1939 and 1940.

The Sherman Silver Purchase Act of 1890

What led up to this act? This act was required by the US government to supplement the Bland-Allison Act.

What did this act entail? It required the US government to purchase twice as much silver as before, and to add substantially to the amount of money in circulation. It was drafted by John Sherman as a compromise with the radical advocates of silver.

What were some consequences of this act? The Sherman Silver Purchase Act threatened, when put into operation, to undermine the U.S. Treasury's gold reserves. After the panic of 1893 broke, President Cleveland called a special session of Congress and secured (1893) the repeal of the act.

The Sherman Antitrust Act of 1890

What led up to this act? At this time, there was the development of many monopolies [trusts]. Most of the government leaders felt that there was a need to break up a number of these business conglomerates.

What did this act entail? This was the first measure passed by the U.S. Congress to prohibit trusts; it was named for Senator John Sherman. Prior to its enactment, various states had passed similar laws, but they were limited to intrastate businesses. Finally, opposition to the concentration of economic power in large corporations and in combinations of business led Congress to pass the Sherman Act. The act, based on the constitutional power of Congress to regulate interstate commerce, declared illegal every contract, combination (in the form of trust or otherwise), or conspiracy in restraint of interstate and foreign trade. A fine of $5,000 and imprisonment for one year were set as the maximum penalties for violating the act.

What were some consequences of this act? The Sherman Act authorized the federal government to institute proceedings against trusts in order to dissolve them, but Supreme Court rulings prevented federal authorities from using the act for some years. As a result of President Theodore Roosevelt's “trust-busting” campaigns, the Sherman Act began to be invoked with some success, and in 1904 the Supreme Court upheld the government in its suit for dissolution of the Northern Securities Company. The act was further employed by President Taft in 1911 against the Standard Oil trust and the American Tobacco Company.

The Foraker Act of 1900

What did this act entail? Civil Law establishing a government in Puerto Rico. Also known as Organic Act of 1900. Precedes the 2nd Organic Act or the Jones Act.

The Newlands Reclamation of 1902

What led up to this act? At the time of Roosevelt's presidency, the Progressive movement had been underway for sometime, and Teddy championed the cause of conservation. This was the first time the issue of conservation had ever been addressed by the government.

What did this act entail? The Newland Act called for "...appropriating the receipts from the sale and disposal of public lands in certain States and Territories to the construction of irrigation works for the reclamation of arid lands." Named after its chief sponsor, Sen. Francis G. Newlands, the act called for setting aside the proceeds from the sale of public lands in sixteen Western states as a fund for the development of irrigation projects. In the future, settlers benefiting from these projects were to repay the costs of these projects, thus creating a permanent revolving fund.

Elkins Act of 1903 & the Hepburn Act of 1906

What led up to these acts?The previous Interstate Commerce Act had proven ineffective, and these acts were created to strengthen it against large business conglomerates, especially railroads.

What did these acts entail? The Elkins Act did not allow railroads to deviate from their published schedules of rates and made railway officers as well as the companies liable in cases of rebating. The Hepburn Act of 1906 allowed for a necessary extension on what the commission could control to express companies, sleeping-car companies, and pipeline, ferry, and terminal facilities. The commission was also given power to reduce a rate found to be unreasonable. In addition, passes were abolished and a commodity clause was included.

What were some consequences of these acts? The Mann Elkins Act of 1910 further extended the jurisdiction of the commission to telephone and telegraph lines, cable and wireless companies. Overall, these acts gave the federal government needed power over these unfair business practices and enabled the people to have fairer rates.

The Pure Food and Drug Act & the Meat Inspection Act (1906)

What led up to these acts? Before the former act, all drugs could be bought and sold like any other consumer good. The manufacturer did not even have to disclose the contents. As for the latter, after Upton Sinclair disclosed the Meat packaging process, it was clear that it was not sanitary.

What did these acts entail? The first act demanded that for purposes of the act an article shall also be deemed misbranded: if the package fails to bear a statement on the label of the quantity or proportion of any alcohol, morphine, opium, cocaine, heroin, alpha or beta eucaine, chloroform, cannabis, chloral hydrate, or acetanilide. In the second act, the following requirements for meat were enacted:

• Mandated antemortem inspection of livestock (cattle, swine, sheep, goats, equines)
• Mandated post-mortem inspection of every carcass
• Established sanitary standards for slaughter and processing plants
• Required continuous USDA inspection of slaughter and processing operations

What were some consequences of these acts? Overally safety of consumer products was increased, but there was still room for improvement.

The Tillman Act (1907)

What led up to this act? Roosevelt used his Presidential stature to influence public opinion and to persuade Congress. The NPLA and other grassroots organizations also pushed for reform. The result of their efforts was the enactment of the Tillman Act of 1907.

What did this act entail? The act specifically prohibited direct contributions from corporations and businesses to political parties and election committees. It was the first law in the books to specifically address campaign funding on the federal level.

What were some consequences of this act? Unfortunately for those who wished for an incorrupt government, this law was easily circumvented. Businesses and corporations would give their employees large bonuses with the understanding that the bonus would be given to a company-"endorsed" candidate. The corporations thus found a loophole, gained political access, and received an additional tax deduction for "employee benefits."

The Publicity Act (1910)

What led up to this act? Progressive reformers defined the lack of campaign finance disclosure as another major problem with the electoral system.

What did this act entail? In order to know to whom legislators might be beholden, the public needed to know from where their respective funding was coming. Voters also needed to be made aware of campaign spending, in order to give them assurance that campaign funds were being spent legitimately. In response to this, the Publicity Act of 1910 was enacted.

What were some consequences of this act? It required full disclosure of all moneys spent and contributed during federal campaigns.

Amendments to Tillman and Publicity Acts (1911)

In addition to general elections, reformers were also concerned with primary elections. This was especially true with reformers in the new Western and old Northern Republican States who resented the Southern Democrats' grip on that region of the country. The only elections that mattered in the South were the Democratic primaries. This was due to the fact that no self-respecting Southern gentleman would belong to the pro-reconstructionist Republican party. Outnumbered in Congress, the Southern Democrats were unable to defeat the 1911 amendments to the Tillman and Publicity Acts which extended the jurisdiction of these acts to primary elections.

The Federal Reserve Act of 1914

What led up to this act? In 1907 there had been another one of the small economic depressions which had dotted the 19th century. However, instead of being passed off as one of the side effects of a free enterprise system, the nation recognized that one of the causes was the ineffective structure of the banking system.

What did this act entail? The Aldrich Vreeland Act of 1908, which had been created for the same purpose, had been rejected as too conservative [it created a National Monetary Commission]. The Federal Reserve Act included Wilson's idea for a Federal Reserve Board by which to regulate the bank system. The main concern was to allow for the establishment of Federal Reserve banks, to provide an elastic currency, to account for means of rediscounting commercial paper, and to establish a more practical supervision of banking in the United States, as well as for other purposes.

What were some consequences of this act? Initially the bankers had issues with this act, but the majority of the population approved of this "ideal banking system". For more information, visit the website for the Federal Reserve Board: http://www.federalreserve.gov/GeneralInfo/fract/default.htm

The Clayton Antitrust Act of 1914

What led up to this act? This was passed as an amendment in an attempt to clarify and supplement the Sherman Antitrust Act.

What did this act entail? It was drafted by Henry De Lamar Clayton. The act prohibited exclusive sales contracts, local price cutting to freeze out competitors, rebates, interlocking directorates in corporations capitalized at $1 million or more in the same field of business, and intercorporate stock holdings. Labor unions and agricultural cooperatives were excluded from the forbidden combinations in the restraint of trade. The act restricted the use of the injunction against labor, and it legalized peaceful strikes, picketing, and boycotts.

What were some consequences of this act? It strengthened the previous act considerably, and was a great achievement for the Progressive movement. It was originally supplemented by the Danbury Hatters' Case, but later rulings weakened the basis of the act. Amendments in the 1950s strengthened provisions against unfair price cutting and stock holdings.

The Jones Act of 1916

What led up to this act?After the United States' acquisition of the formerly Spanish terroritories, there remained some question as to whether these "freed" colonies would remain under US rule. However, under the term of Governor Francis Harrison, there was a smooth "filipinization".

What did this act entail? The Jones Act allowed for Philippine independance as soon as a stable government was established.

What were some consequences of this act? The initial actions of Governor Harrison as well as Wilson with his appointment of 5 Filipino officials had angered the Americans staying on the island. Nevertheless, this act was the first step towards the creation of the Commonwealth of the Philippines in 1935.

Adamson Railway Labor Act of 1916

What led up to this act?This act was passed to avert another railroad strike during WWI.

What did this act entail? It provided the same pay for an 8 hour day as previously had been paid for a 10 hour day, and provided time and a half for overtime. The president was permitted to nationalize railroads in times of emergency.

What were some of the consequences of this act? World War I brought federal control of the railroads and with it a surge in rail union power. During the twenty-six-month seizure, the director general and the various boards created to implement that seizure doubled union wages, permitted an unimpeded surge in union membership, and imposed costly work rules that at least in part continue in effect today.

The Federal Farm Loan Act of 1917

What led up to this act? Although Jefferson had imagined the United States as a nation of yeoman farmers and scorned businessman, the farmers during this period were by no means prospering. Something was required to prevent the complete destablization of the agricultural system.

What did this act entail? Farmers could borrow up to 50% the value of their land and 20% the value of their improvements.

The Espionage Act of 1917 & Sedition Act of 1918

What led up to this act? A number of socialists and pacifists had opposed the governemnt's policies. At a time when patriotic fervor was required for participation in the war, the nativist sentiments led to harsh legislation.

What did this act entail? The first ensured a stiff prison sentence of up to 20 years for anyone who tried to incite rebellion in the armed forces or obstruct the draft. The second prohibited anyone from making disloyal remakrs about the US government.

What were some of the consequences of this act? 2000 people were prosecuted under these laws, half of whom were jailed, including Eugene Debs [who then proceeded to run for election. Again]. For further information, see Schenk v. US.

The Selective Service Act of 1917

What did this act entail? A system of selective service was devised by the Secretary of War under Wilson. It would be a democratic method for ensuring that all demographics would be called upon to serve. Under this act, approximately 2.8 million men were called by lottery as draftees.

The Volstead Act of 1919

What led up to this act? This act was created to help curb the growing problem of alcoholism in the United States. It was theorized that prohibiting the sale or manufacture of all alcoholic beverages would help to curb alcohol problems, and by increasing sobriety, promote the welfare of the United States and her Citizens.

What did this act entail? This act prohibited the sale, possession, and manufacture of all alcoholic beverages in the United States during the entirety of World War I. Exceptions were made for sacramental wine.

What were some of the consequences of this act? This act was a precursor to the 18th amendment. It was the first federal step towards prohibition in the U.S.

Fordney McCumber Tariff Act (1922)

What led up to this act? This act was created to help protect fledgling American businesses from overseas competition from Europe.

What did this act entail? This act created the highest tariff rates in American history on such things as manufactured and agricultural goods. This act also gave the president the power to make up the difference between foreign and domestic products by introducing protective tariffs.

What were some of the consequences of this act? This act strained trade relations between Europe and America.

The Indian Reorganization Act of 1934 (Wheeler-Howard Act)

What led up to this act?This act was a result of the progressive era and the populist tendency towards improvement of civil rights.

What did this act entail? This act secured the Indian Reservations as tribal lands. The act also gave Indians the right to open businesses, and provided for vocational education for the Indians.

What were some of the consequences of this act? This act showed the government's reversal of policy towards the Indians.

The New Deal

Emergency Banking Act of 1933

What did this act entail? This act allowed inspection of bank records to enable financially stable banks to reopen and validated the "bank holiday". It also permitted the Reconstruction Finance Corporation (RFC) to buy stocks of banks in trouble, given them new capital.

Agricultural Adjustment Act of 1933

What did this act entail? (This act was later ruled unconstitutional in 1936)

• Limited farm production by paying subsidies to farmers to withold land from cultivation
• Kept surpluses in check and prices of agricultural commodities and farm incomes up

National Industrial Recovery Act of 1933

What did this act entail? (This act was later ruled unconstitutional, see Schecter v. US)

• Created National Recovery Administration
• Administered codes of fair practices for business and industry
• Created Public Works Administration to provide money for construction and to improve infrastructure

Securities Act of 1933

What did this act entail? This act gave FTC power to supervise new issues of stock amd required statement of financial information to accompany new stock issues.

Banking Act of 1935

What did this act entail? This Act organized Federal Reserve System and gave Federal Reserve Board control over open-market operations

Public Utilities Holding Act of 1935

What led up to this act? This act was the result of progressive thinking and the desire to prevent another Great Depression during the 1930s. The heavy regulation of trusts and business in general under Roosevelt's democratic government made this way of thinking a stark reality in terms of the legislation of the period.

What did this act entail? This act made it illegal for government-regulated trusts to use the profits from their respective utilities to purchase non-regulated companies and businesses.

What were some of the consequences of this act? This act made it impossible for government-regulated utilities to hide behind their monopolies while taking over entire fields of business in safety, thus overturning competition, a key aspect of capitalism.

National Labor Relations Act of 1935

What led up to this act? This act was an effort to reform labor conditions in the United States. It essentially gave the working force of America bargaining power, as it enabled them to organize themselves into entities that could effectively deal with the industrialists of the time.

What did this act entail? This act secured the rights of the average worker to bond with other average workers into Unions, to bargain for better working conditions, shorter hours, and lower wages.

What were some of the consequences of this act? This act gave average workers a huge bargaining chip when they were dealing with industrialists.

Social Security Act of 1935

What led up to this act? This act was the direct result of a petition started by Francis Townsend. The petition had over 20 million signatures and stated the wishes of people to provide those people of age 60 and over with a pension amounting to $200 a month.

What did this act entail? This act provided senior citizens with a pension by placing a three percent tax on all wages, to be paid by both employer and employee.

What were some of the consequences of this act? This act provided a source of income for older citizens, so that they could retire. This opened up new jobs for younger citizens, stimulating the economy.

The Fair Labor Standards Act of 1938

What did this act entail? This act set a maximum of the 44 hour work week and a minimum wage of 25 cents an hour for workers engaged in interstate commerce. This was the last of the major New Deal Legislation.

The Hatch Act of 1939

What did this act entail? This was a law forbidding federal executive employees from participating in and contributing to any presidential or congressional election campaign. Designed to combat political corruption, the law imposed stiff penalties on any person who used political influence on federal officeholders. Amended in 1940, the act further included state and local employees whose salaries were paid for, even partially, by the federal government. It was also called the Federal Corruption Practices Act of 1939.

What were some of the consequences of this act? It has especially affected political campaigns in recent years when many executive employees are forced to leave their jobs in times of election.

The Neutrality Acts of 1935, 1936, 1937 and 1939

What led up to these acts?After the fiasco that was considered the First World War, many Americans thought that isolationism was indeed the best way.

What did these acts entail? They prohibited arms shipments and travel by ships of belligerent nations, forbade loans and credits to belligerent nations and forbade shipment of arms to sides in the Spanish Civil War.

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Acts by the USA (1940-Present)

GI Bill Employment Act Taft-Hartley Act Fair Deal National Security Act Smith Act McCarran Internal Security Act The Highway Act Trade Expansion Act Nuclear Test Ban Treaty Elementary and Secondary Education Act Civil Rights Act of 1964 Voting Rights Act Landrum-Griffith Act War Powers Act Neutrality Treaty of 1978 Camp David Accords Immigration Act Immigration Reform and Control Act Termination Act Indian Self-Determination Act Air Quality Act Clean Air ActClean Water Act Title IX of Educational Amendments Intermediate Nuclear Force Agreement Americans with Disabilities Act North American Free Trade Agreement Back to Top

GI Bill (The Servicemen’s Readjustment Act of 1944)

What led up to this act? This act was designed to make returning to a normal life easier for World War Two veterans. This was in keeping with Roosevelt’s “Return to Normalcy”.

What does it entail? This act stated that the federal government would provide tuition, schoolbook costs, and counseling fees to those veterans who were returning home from the war. This was to encourage veterans to attend school, and it worked. Over 7 million veterans took advantage of this act in the 7 years following WWII.

When has it been applied? This act was first put into effect on June 22, 1944, and was put into use after WWII.

Employment Act of 1946

What led up to this act? This act was brought on by the immense spending by the government (and often, the people) which incited a large amount of deficit which often followed the economic leaps brought upon military spending during the various wars. However, this cycle of economic gain and loss created a rift between the employed and the unemployed, often hurting the market overall.

What does this act entail ? (1) High tariffs to "protect" American jobs,.(2) Manipulation of the money supply - first inflating, then contracting the quantity of money. (3) Tax increases to fund expanded government programs. (4) Price and wage "fixing" via the National Recovery Administration.This was proposed by John Maynard Keynes.

When has it been applied? After great support by FDR and one time Vice President Henry Wallace, who declared that the economical slump was a direct result of the “planlessness” of the American economy.

Taft-Hartley Act of 1947

What led up to this act? This act was designed to qualify and limit the National Labor Relations Act. This act was also designed to curb some of the power that unions had over bi\business in the United States in the 40’s.

What does it entail? This act made it possible for the federal government to impose an 80 day cool-down period before a strike could be put into effect if the government felt that the strike would endanger the lives of Americans. The act also outlawed the “closed shop” policies.

Fair Deal

The implementation of Medicare led to jokes in later decades regarding its inefficiency.

What led up to this act? This is not an individual act, but rather a term used to refer usually to the whole of president Harry S. Truman’s term of office. There were several acts passed during this period, including the Employment act of 1946.

What does it entail? This era entailed several important acts, most directed towards reform of employment, education, welfare, and social services.

National Security Act of 1947

What led up to this act? Presumably this act could have come about as a result of world war two, and perhaps also the growing realization that should nuclear secrets leak out of the United States, it would be disasterous.

What did this act entail? This act created the National Security Council, a body designed to help the president make important foreign policy and military decisions. The act also created the CIA out of the O.S.S, the Office of Strategic Services. The act also merged the department of navy and the department of war into the department of defense.

Smith Act of 1940 – Dennis et al v. United States

What led up to this act? This act was created in 1940 to curb the spread of communism. Even before WWII, the threat of creeping socialism was ever-present in the American mind.

What did it entail? This act made it illegal and punishable to advocate the overthrowing of the government. It also stated that all immigrants over the age of fourteen had to file a declaration of their occupational status in the united states and a statement of their political beliefs.

When was this act applied? This act was applied during the communist scare against the American Communist Party, and specifically to imprison the secretary of the Socialist Worker’s party.

McCarran Internal Security Act of 1950

What led up to this act? This act was the direct result of the American fear of creeping socialism in the 1950s.

What did this act entail? This act required the registration act of all members of the American Communist Party. The Act also made it illegal to plot to set up any type of totalitarian government. One of the more deplorable statements of the act was the authority it gave to congress to set up what were effectively concentration acts in times of emergency.

The Highway Act of 1956

What led up to this act? This act was prompted by several high government authorities noting, possibly on their drive to work each day, that the nation’s highway’s were in a state of almost total disrepair, and that the traffic patterns on our nation’s roads were terrible.

What did this act entail? This act provided for the repair and remodeling of the nation’s highways and superhighways.

Trade Expansion Act of 1962

What led up to this act ? For many years, the international body was suffering from a lack of cohesion in terms of trade and the burden of tariffs were hurting various economies worldwide. In 1947, twenty-three nations had concluded the Protocol of Provisional Application of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (also known as GATT). The first GATT negotiating round also achieved 122 mutual tariff reduction agreements and provisions for building regional free trade or common market zones. Much of the improvements wrought on by these meetings were implemented within the TEA.

What did this act entail? The U.S. Trade Expansion Act authorized the president to negotiate mutual tariff reductions of up to 50 percent with other countries. It also established the post of special representative for trade negotiations in the Executive Office of the President to lead U.S. trade negotiation delegations as well as interagency trade policy committees.

Nuclear Test Ban Treaty (actually realized circa 1996)

What led up to this act? This act was the direct result of fears over the cold war, and the united states being annihilated by Russia.

What did this act entail? This act was a voluntary motion on the part of the united states to ban above ground testing of nuclear weapons. The United States did, however, still continue to test weapons underwater.

Elementary and Secondary Education Act of 1965:

What led up to this act?  This act was the result of concern over the lack of funding for our nation’s schools, and the concern that minority students and school with large concentrations of minority students were not receiving the same privileges as other schools.

What did this act entail? This act provided funding for elementary and secondary schools, and for schools with large concentrations of minority students.

Civil Rights Act of 1964

What led up to this act? This act was inspired partially by the assassination of president John F. Kennedy in 1962. The Kennedys were always deeply involved in civil rights.

What did this act entail? This act continued Kennedy’s philosophy, and the philosophy of the Civil Rights Act of 1957. The act was pushed through the house and senate by Lyndon Johnson.

Voting Rights Act of 1965

What led up to this act? This act was designed to combat the southern practices of denying minorities the right to vote in some cases.

What did this act entail?   This act cleared up some voting discrepancies, and placed into effect new voting laws designed to make voting available to all.

Landrum-Griffith Act of 1959 (Labor Management Reporting and Disclosure Act)

What events led up to the creation of this act? Resulted from hearings in the senate about improper employment procedures and other battles resulting from union and company disagreements. Other issues were use of violence by labor party leadership and the regulation and control of union funds.

What does this act entail? Union members are protected against abuses by a bill of rights that includes guarantees of freedom of speech and periodic secret elections. Secondary boycotting and organizational and recognition picketing (i.e., picketing of companies where a rival union is already recognized) are severely restricted by the act.Organized labor has, in general, opposed the act for strengthening what they consider the antilabor provisions of the Taft-Hartley Labor Act.

When has this act been implemented? In many relatively small scale cases, this act has been used to defend the rights of laborers throughout the United States.

War Powers Act of 1973

What led up to this act? Under the constitution, Congress is given the power to declare a war. However, the Korean War and Vietnam were essentially presidential wars, and were originally not wars at all. Using the United Nations and other international bodies, both of these wars were declared through the wishes of their respective presidents. The 93^rd Congress found this to be ineffective, and created this act.

What does it entail? Basically, it reiterates that the President must enlist in the approval of Congress before sending the Military Forces to war. If Congress does not agree with the war, then the troops must return within 60 days. (If there is a question of safety, an additional 30 days is allotted).

When has it been applied? Clinton, through NATO went to bomb Yugoslavia, meant to be a brief ‘war’. However, it did not end up being that way, and when Congress did not support the war, Clinton was forced to “wrap it up” within 60 days.

The Neutrality Treaty of 1978

And the Panama Canal Treaty of 1978:

What led up to these treaties? The dream of a trans-oceanic canal has been a dream since the Spanish colonization. In the late 1800s, a French company attempted to construct a canal to no avail. In November 1903, Panama proclaimed its independence with the Hay/Bunau-Varilla Treaty with the U.S. This allowed the U.S. to claim an area 10 miles long and 50 miles wide. In this zone, the U.S. would build and fortify a canal for as long as necessary. Growing bilateral tension in the 1960s resulted in the need to create a new treaty.

What do they entail? The Neutrality Treaty ensured that regardless of the political conditions, the zone around which the Panama Canal is located should remain neutral. The Panama Canal Treaty gave the United States the responsibility for the operation and defense of the canal until December of 1999.

When have they been applied? In 1999, U.S. turned over all responsibility of the canal to Panama.

The Camp David Accords of 1978

What led up to this? The Israeli-Palestine conflict had continued for a long time (and continues). Some events such as the Arab-Israeli War (1948), Armistice Agreements (1949), Suez War (1956), Six Day War (1967), War of Attrition (1970), and the Yom Kippur War (1973). They were signed after twelve days of secret negotiating at Camp David by Egyptian president Anwar Sadat and Israeli Prime Minister Menachem Begin at the White House in the presence of Jimmy Carter.

What does it entail? The first agreement dealt with the future of the Sinai Peninsula and peace between Israel and Egypt. It clearly defined relations between the two countries, withdrawal from Sinai, and militarization arrangements within the peninsula. The second was a framework agreement establishing a format for the conduct of negotiations for the establishment of an autonomy regime in the West Bank and the Gaza strip.

When have they been applied ? Later the second agreement was interpreted differently by Israel, Egypt and the United States.

Immigration Act of 1965

What led up to this ? In the 1920s, the United States had greatly restricted immigration with quotas, especially from Asia and South America. Feeling this move to be rendered uneccessary by the expansion of resources within the United States, it was essentially repealed.

What does this act entail ? The Act opened up United States borders to all immigrants.

When has it been applied ? Nearly everyday, as someone moves to the U.S. from overseas.

Immigration Reform and Control Act of 1986

What led up to this? After the Immigration Act of 1965, many illegal immigrants were coming in. Many people were coming to look for opportunities in the United States, however; they could not attain certification from various governments and embassies and therefore were not cleared to come here.

What does this act entail? It attempts to prevent unauthorized entrance into the United States. Employer sanctions, increased appropriations for enforcement, and amnesty provisions of IRCA are the main ways of accomplishing its objective. The employer sanctions provision designates penalties for employers who hire aliens not authorized to work in the United States.

When has it been applied? Under the amnesty provision, illegal aliens who lived continuously in the United States since before January 1, 1982, could have applied to the Immigration and Naturalization Service (INS) for legal resident status by May 4, 1988, the application cutoff date. In addition, since the agriculture industry heavily depended on these illegal immigrants, they were an exception.

The Termination Act of 1953 and the Indian Self-Determination Act of 1975

What led up to this? The Indian Re-allotment Act of 1934 ensured that no more allotments would occur, which would stop land disagreements. It also allowed tribes to set up their own governments. In addition, the various Indian governments were having education concerns.

What do these acts entail? The first act provides for independent action by tribes in matters formerly the responsibility of the United States government including health care and education. The second awards money to the tribes for the execution of educational and health care procedures.

The Air Quality Act of 1967 and the Clean Air Act of 1970

The results of efforts of the United States to reduce emissions after the Clean Air Act and the Kyoto protocol.

What led up to this? Congress was becoming aware of the heightened concern about pollution by various Earth Day demonstrations in 1970. When the Air Quality Act failed to make a significant difference, the Clean Air Act, essentially an amendment to the prior legislation was suggested. The viability of the first act was questioned with the concern that air contamination does not present itself to neatly arranged regional boundaries. A version of this act was first drawn up in California.

What do these acts entail? The first statute authorized the Secretary of Health, Education, and Welfare (who then had chief responsibility for federal environmental protection programs) to designate so-called air quality regions throughout the country; the states were given primary responsibility for adopting and enforcing pollution control standards within those regions. When this failed to make a difference, the second act set specific standards for various sources of pollution such as automobiles and refrigerators.

When have they been applied? These acts aided in the United States attempts to lower overall pollution as required by the Montreal and Kyoto Protocols. The 1977 amendment to the Clean Air Act shows that they did need some work, but were an excellent basis for the goal in mind.

The Clean Water Act of 1972

The purpose of this was very similar to that of the Clean Water Act and was incited by the same events.

What does this act entail? It gave EPA the authority to implement pollution control programs such as setting wastewater standards for industry. The Clean Water Act also continued requirements to set water quality standards for all contaminants in surface waters. The Act also made it illegal to throw pollutants into water sources.

When has it been applied? This act led to the Great Lakes Water Quality Agreement of 1978, signed by the U.S. and Canada, where the two nations agreed to reduce certain toxic pollutants in the Great Lakes. That law required EPA to establish water quality criteria for the Great Lakes addressing 29 toxic pollutants with maximum levels that are safe for humans, wildlife, and aquatic life.

Title IX of Educational Amendments in 1972

A chart detailing the ramifications of Title IX.

What events led up to the creation of the act? The origin lies in the Presidential Executive Order 11246 which prohibits contractors from discrimination from employment on the basis of race, color, religion or national origin. The original bill was an amendment onto Title VII, but was later changed to Title IX.

What does this Act entail? No person in the United States shall, on the basis of sex, be excluded from participation in, be denied the benefits of, or be subjected to discrimination under any education program or activity receiving Federal financial assistance.

How has this act been implemented? There has been a dramatic increase of female athletes of color since the Title IX act was implemented. However, many people feel that execution of this act has been detrimental to the state of college athletics in general. An unfortunate side effect of this act has been the termination of many promising boys’ sports teams in an attempt to equalize funding. On the other hand, it has led to recognition of the fantastic amounts of money spent towards the recruitment and training of football teams.

The Intermediate Nuclear Force Agreement of 1987

What led up to this? The Cold War had resulted in the build-up of arms by both parties. In 1985 when Mikhail Gorbachev became the Soviet general-secretary, there began to be some efforts of balancing the numbers of missiles and other weapons on both sides. The negotiations between the two nations expanded to include all intermediate range missiles in 1986.

What does this agreement entail? The 1987 Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces (INF) Treaty required the United States and the Soviet Union to eliminate and permanently forswear all of their nuclear and conventional ground-launched ballistic and cruise missiles with ranges of 500 to 5,500 kilometers. The treaty marked the first time the superpowers had agreed to reduce their nuclear arsenals, eliminate an entire category of nuclear weapons, and utilize extensive on-site inspections for verification.

What has this led to? This act quite possibly led to the end of the Cold War and the end of tensions between these two countries.

Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990

What led up to this? There were events in the 1970s and 80s that showed the American Disabilities struggle. The desire for the disabled to have full participation in society led to the Rehabilitation Act of 1973 and the Education for All Handicapped Children Act of 1974 (renamed the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act). The latest act increased the benefits of these and added a few more.

What does this act entail? The former laws, among other initiatives, prohibited discrimination based on disability in local programs and activities benefiting from federal financial assistance; its enforcement has resulted in improved program accessibility for disabled persons to health care, social services, recreation, housing, transportation, etc. This law gives civil rights protection to individuals with disabilities, similar to that provided to individuals based on race, sex, national origin and religion. The ADA guarantees equal opportunity for individuals with disabilities in the area of employment.

The North American Free Trade Agreement

What led up to this? Many of the Caribbean countries and Central American nations were interested in promoting trade throughout this region without the use of tariffs. Especially with the creation of the OAS (Organization of American States) it was important that these boundaries be eliminated with the interests of the economies of various nations in mind. However, no specific trade agreement existed for the three largest countries in the OAS.

What does this entail? In addition to gradually eliminating all tariffs on North American-made goods, NAFTA works to eliminate or impose strict rules on non-tariff borders. It also opens government-purchasing regimes in each nation, and eliminates restrictions of foreign investments. In addition, it works to remove barriers that prevent countries from working across borders. In addition, it provides comprehensive rules to protect intellectual property rights; and provides three distinct dispute settlement mechanisms.

What has this led to? This is leading to other agreements working to unify the Americas, specifically the FTAA (Free Trade Agreement of the Americas) which is currently in the making.